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Theories of Personality > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

our psychological traits and mechanisms; within the individual; organized and relatively enduring

A

personality

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2
Q

how a person acts/feels on average; results in some consistency in behavior

A

traits

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3
Q

what might lead someone to deviate from their average response? (3 things)

A

emotions, social norms, recent experiences

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4
Q

What are the 4 key questions about traits?

A
  1. Where do you think traits come from?
  2. How many traits do you think there are?
  3. Is there a structure of these traits?
  4. What correlates with different traits?
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5
Q

how people process info; attempt to explain the way in which personality influences thinking and behavior

A

mechanisms

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6
Q

Personality is theorized to be ______ and not the result of _________.

A

internal; situations

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7
Q

Personality has clear _______ and _____ patterns of thoughts and behaviors.

A

structure

consistent

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8
Q

Personality influences the ________ that people choose and how they _______.

A

environment

react

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9
Q

people with certain personalities choose certain comfortable situations

A

selection

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10
Q

your personality will influence other’s behavior around you and their interaction with you

A

evocation

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11
Q

when you try to control people to act the way you want them to

A

manipulation

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12
Q

The ______ poses threats to our health, survival, and well being.

A

environment

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13
Q

What are the 3 levels of personality analysis?

A
  1. human nature
  2. individual and group differences
  3. individual uniqueness
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14
Q

personality components processed by nearly everyone; psychological needs

A

human nature

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15
Q

What are the 3 psychological needs?

A
  1. competence
  2. autonomy
  3. freedom
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16
Q

how people differ across groups

A

group differences

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17
Q

ways in which each person is similar to some, but different from others

A

individual differences

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18
Q

ways in which someone is different from all other people

A

individual uniqueness

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19
Q

approach to research in which each person is an individual

A

idiographic

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20
Q

approach to research in which people’s characteristics are compared to the characteristics of other people

A

nomothetic

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21
Q

What are the 6 domains of knowledge?

A
  1. dispositional
  2. biological
  3. intrapsychic
  4. cognitive-experimental
  5. social/cultural
  6. adjustment
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22
Q

how people differ from one another; the goal of this domain of knowledge is to identify and measure basic differences between people and how differences develop

A

dispositional

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23
Q

domain of knowledge focus on biological bias of behavior, thought, and emotion

A

biological

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24
Q

domain of knowledge stating that mental mechanisms of personality often operate outside of conscious awareness

A

intrapsychic

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25
Q

domain of knowledge dealing with conscious thoughts, feelings, and beliefs; perception and interpretation of events/people

A

cognitive-experiential

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26
Q

domain of knowledge stating that personality affects and is affected by cultural and social contexts; individual differences within cultures

A

social and cultural

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27
Q

how we cope and adjust to stress in daily life (linked with health outcomes)

A

adjustment

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28
Q

information provided by participants; simplest and easiest way to gain information; questionnaire and interview

A

self report data (S-Data)

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29
Q

When are questionnaires more helpful?

A

personal/moral/ethical questions

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30
Q

When is interviewing a participant most helpful?

A

when more information is needed, when past experiences must be recalled

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31
Q

What is an example of an unstructured item in self report data?

A

open ended questions

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32
Q

statements pertaining to relationships

A

social statements

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33
Q

statements that refer to personality characteristics

A

attributive statements

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34
Q

What is the limitation of unstructured items in self report data?

A

you may not get the info you are looking for because it is up to the participant to interpret the question

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35
Q

What are 3 examples of structured items in self report data?

A
  1. adjective checklists
  2. rating scale
  3. rank order
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36
Q

When would S-Data be most useful?

A

when personal info is needed

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37
Q

Why might S-data not be useful?

A

participants may not respond honestly, self-knowledge may be inaccurate

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38
Q

What are 2 possible methods if you need to get reports at multiple time points?

A
  1. ESM methods (experience sampling methods)

2. daily diary methods

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39
Q

info provided by an observer about another person

A

Observer data (O-Data)

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40
Q

When is O-Data best used?

A

when concept is observable

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41
Q

record what happens in participants daily lives

A

naturalistic observation

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42
Q

observing in artificial settings/situations

A

artificial observation

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43
Q

What are the pros (2) and cons (1) of naturalistic observation?

A

pros: realistic context, observe without awareness
con: not able to control events

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44
Q

what are the pros (2) and cons (2) of artificial observation?

A

pros: controlled conditions, can elicit relevant behavior
cons: less realistic, demand characteristics

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45
Q

researcher has an effect on participants that makes them act differently than they normally would

A

Hawthorne Effect

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46
Q

What are the 2 main types of observers?

A
  1. professional personality assessors

2. family/friends/acquaintances of participant

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47
Q

What is the pro of using a professional personality assessor?

A

trained and experienced in assessment

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48
Q

What are the pros (2) and cons (1) of family/friend/acquaintances of participants as observers?

A

pros: more naturalistic, can assess across social situations
cons: may be biased

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49
Q

specific ways of assessing for certain things

A

coding schemes

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50
Q

standardized tests or test situations

A

test data (T-Data)

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51
Q

_______ observation can be used to collect test data.

A

artificial

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52
Q

What is an example of an analogue measure?

A

Balloon Assessment of Risk Taking (BART)

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53
Q

What are the pros (2) and cons (1) of using a mechanical recording device to measure behavior?

A

pros: 100% objective, can be used in naturalistic behavior
cons: not many personality traits can be measured this way

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54
Q

measures level of arousal, reactions to stimuli

A

physiological data

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55
Q

What are the pros (1) and cons (2) of using physiological data?

A

pros: hard to fake responses
cons: usually used in artificial lab setting (can be invasive), accuracy depends on participant’s perceiving stimuli as experimenter intended

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56
Q

ambiguous stimuli presented, participants describe what is seen

A

projective techniques

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57
Q

What are the pros (2) and cons (3) of using projective techniques?

A

pros: provides info that participants may not be aware of and could not self report, unconscious wishes/desires/fantasies
cons: hard to score, time consuming, uncertain validity and reliability

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58
Q

info based on events, activities, and outcomes that is available to the public

A

life outcome data (L-Data)

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59
Q

What are the pros (1) and cons (1) of using L-data?

A

pros: real life info about personality
cons: not much is publicly available in US

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60
Q

new form of life outcome data

A

social networking

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61
Q

What are the 3 types of nomothetic research design in personality?

A
  1. correlational studies
  2. longitudinal studies
  3. experiments
62
Q

What is an example of an idiographic research design in personality?

A

case studies

63
Q

studies that measure 2 things at one time to see if there is a mathematical relationship

A

correlational studies

64
Q

what is the pro of correlational studies?

A

identify relationships among variables as they occur

65
Q

Correlation (does/does not) equal causation

A

does not

66
Q

we don’t know which variable causes which

A

directionality problem

67
Q

some other unmeasured variable may be causing the relationship

A

third variable problem

68
Q

used to determine causality, whether changes in the IV cause changes in the DV

A

experiments

69
Q

What are the 2 key requirements of experiments?

A
  1. manipulation of independent variable

2. control of other factors

70
Q

participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either condition (between subjects)

A

random assignment

71
Q

participants exposed to all conditions in different orders (within subjects)

A

counterbalancing

72
Q

in depth examination of one person

A

case studies

73
Q

What are the pros (2) and cons (1) of case studies?

A

pros: detailed info about individual personality, can be used to form more general theory to be tested on larger sample later
cons: results based on study of single person cannot be generalized

74
Q

What is the best approach to use for research designs?

A

multi-method approach

75
Q

What are the 3 evaluations of personality measures?

A
  1. reliability
  2. validity
  3. generalizability
76
Q

degree to which a test produces consistent results that are likely close to a participants true score on that measure

A

reliability

77
Q

What are the 3 types of reliability?

A
  1. test-retest reliability
  2. inter-rater reliability
  3. internal consistency/split-half reliability
78
Q

reliability in which participants get similar scores when tested more than once

A

test-retest reliability

79
Q

how much different raters agree on observations

A

inter-rater reliability

80
Q

reliability in which participants respond in similar ways to related items, most commonly used in psychology

A

internal consistency/split-half reliability

81
Q

tendency to answer questions in a particular way that is unrelated to what the question asks

A

response sets

82
Q

Reliability can be influenced by _______

A

response sets

83
Q

degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure

A

validity

84
Q

What are the 5 types of validity?

A
  1. face validity
  2. predictive/criterion validity
  3. convergent validity
  4. discriminant validity
  5. construct validity
85
Q

items are relevant to what is being measured

A

face validity

86
Q

Why might we want a trait that is not face valid?

A

undesirable/negative trait, prejudice measures, social desirability bias

87
Q

can predict trait relevant behavior; correlates with other measures of traits

A

predictive/criterion validity

88
Q

measure correlates with other measures/behaviors it should correlate with; direction of correlation does not matter

A

convergent validity

89
Q

measure does not correlate with other measures/behaviors it should not correlate with

A

discriminant validity

90
Q

degree to which your measure meets all other types of validity, overall measure of validity

A

construct validity

91
Q

Reliability does not guarantee ________

A

validity

92
Q

degree to which test remains valid across contexts

A

generalizability

93
Q

What are the 3 purposes in personality theory?

A
  1. organizes concepts together
  2. provides a guide for researchers
  3. allows generation of new predictions
94
Q

What 3 things make a good theory?

A
  1. theory
  2. parsimony
  3. accuracy of predicting new phenomenon
  4. compatibility with other theories and findings
  5. testability
95
Q

set of variables and specification of how they relate to one another

A

theory

96
Q

explains as much as possible; organizes many constructs together

A

breadth

97
Q

with as little as possible

A

simplicity

98
Q

explains as much as possible with as little as possible

A

parsimony

99
Q

coming up with new predictions

A

heuristic value

100
Q

Theories are not directly testable. You must generate a ______ to test a theory.

A

hypothesis

101
Q

characteristics of a person, stable over time

A

traits

102
Q

What are the 3 basic questions we ask when talking about traits?

A
  1. how do we define traits?
  2. what traits are the most important?
  3. is there a taxonomy of traits?
103
Q

How do we define traits? (2 alternative positions)

A
  1. internal causal properties

2. purely descriptive summaries

104
Q

explains behavior as a part of our psychological architecture across situations

A

internal causal properties

105
Q

what is the problem with defining traits using internal causal properties?

A

traits may not always be expressed (dormant)

106
Q

A trait is only causal if other causes of behavior can be ______

A

ruled out

107
Q

Do you act the same way every time in the given situation?

A

situational consistency

108
Q

Do you have different behaviors across different situations?

A

cross-situational distinctiveness

109
Q

Do others behave similarly in the same situation?

A

consensus

110
Q

Attribution Theory Summary:
If a behavior is due to situation: situational consistency is _______, cross-situational distinctiveness is _______, and consensus is ______.

A

high
high
high

111
Q

Attribution Theory Summary:
If a behavior is due to internal properties: situational consistency is _____, cross-situational distinctiveness is _____, and consensus is _____

A

high
low
low

112
Q

describe and summarize attributes, identify and describe important individual differences, develop causal theories to explain them

A

purely descriptive summaries

113
Q

Traits are categories of _____

A

acts

114
Q

some internal factor causes us to act in a consistent manner

A

internal causal approach

115
Q

consistent behavior leads to appearance of an internal factor (personality), but that behavior stems from situational factors; traits describe trends in behavior

A

descriptive summary approach

116
Q

What are the 3 steps in act frequency research?

A
  1. act nominations
  2. prototypicality judgment
  3. recording act performance
117
Q

What are the pros (3) and cons (3) of act frequency research?

A

pros: links trait terms to behaviors, shows behavior regularities, can look at self/observer agreement and why there might be differences
cons: role of context unclear, hard to study rare/unobservable acts, hard to study complex traits that may have many different manifestations in behavior

118
Q

what are the 3 approaches to identifying traits?

A
  1. lexical
  2. statistical
  3. theoretical
119
Q

states that if an individual difference is important, there will be many words for it

A

lexical approach

120
Q

In the lexical approach to identifying traits, what are the 2 criteria?

A
  1. synonym frequency

2. cross-cultural universality

121
Q

What are the 3 problems and limitations associated with the lexical approach to identifying traits?

A
  1. some words for traits are unclear
  2. personality is described in many ways
  3. cultures might actually differ in personality
122
Q

states that to identify traits we must start with a theory and the pros and cons of that theory will be reflected in the results

A

theoretical approach

123
Q

states that in identifying traits we should start with many items, obtain participants scores on these data, and use the stats to look for a pattern

A

statistical approach

124
Q

taking lots of different factors and turning them into groups of similar items (covariance)

A

factor analysis

125
Q

What are the pros (2) of factor analysis?

A
  1. unbiased

2. reduces large arrays of traits to similar, more useful groups

126
Q

how much variation in an item is explained by a factor

A

factor loading

127
Q

What does a factor score mean?

A

convergence across measures

128
Q

When identifying traits, what is the preferred method?

A

combining approaches

129
Q

What is a taxonomy? What is its goal?

A

classification system

identify and name groups within a subject

130
Q

Who came up with the Hierarchical Model as a trait taxonomy that stated that there are 3 major traits: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism?

A

Eysenck

131
Q

People with this personality trait have many friends, need people around to talk to, are practical jokers, are carefree, and have a high activity level.

A

extraversion

132
Q

People with this personality trait worry a lot, have trouble sleeping, have an overactivity of negative emotions (anxiety, depression)

A

neuroticism

133
Q

People with this personality trait lack empathy, are aggressive, impulsive, solitary, and antisocial

A

psychoticism

134
Q

Psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism have _______ heritability, so they have an identifiable _______ substrate

A

moderate

physiological

135
Q

What are the 2 limitations of Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of traits?

A
  1. may have left out important traits

2. nervous system activation/deactivation does not mean the trait is inborn

136
Q

Who came up with the 16 factor system of trait taxonomy?

A

Cattell

137
Q

What are the 2 major criticisms of Cattell’s 16 factor system?

A
  1. failure to replicate

2. too many factors

138
Q

trait taxonomy that focuses on interpersonal traits; interactions between people involve exchanges of status or love; 2 main dimensions: dominance-submissiveness and friendliness-hostility

A

Wiggins Complex

139
Q

What are the 3 advantages of the wiggins complex?

A
  1. defines interpersonal behavior
  2. specifies relationships between traits
  3. reveals gaps in work on interpersonal behavior
140
Q

According to the Wiggins Complex, what are the 3 types of specified relationships?

A
  1. adjacency
  2. bipolarity
  3. orthogonality
141
Q

close variables are correlated

A

adjacency

142
Q

opposite traits are negatively correlated

A

bipolarity

143
Q

perpendicular traits are unrelated

A

orthogonality

144
Q

What are the 2 limitations of the Wiggins Complex?

A
  1. only 2 dimensions - other traits may be important too

2. ignores behavior when alone

145
Q

Which trait taxonomy claims that there are 5 broad factors? What are these factors (Big 5)?

A

Five Factor Model

Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

146
Q

What is the most successful and widely used taxonomy?

A

Five Factor Model

147
Q

What are the 2 pros of the Five Factor Model?

A
  1. people act in ways consistent with traits

2. not specific to one culture

148
Q

What are the 5 possible omissions in the five factor model?

A
  1. optimism/pessimism
  2. masculinity/femininity
  3. spirituality
  4. sexuality
  5. honesty/humility
149
Q

In the Big 5, each trait is composed of several _______

A

facets

150
Q

___________ of the Big 5 tend to be much more predictive of behavior than individual factors

A

combinations

Theories of Personality (5 decks)

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