Exam 1

Question 1

The scientific study of mind and behavior.

Answer 1

Psychology

Question 2

The modern scientific study of psychology, originating in the late 19th century.

Answer 2

Psychological Science

Question 3

A branch of medicine concerned with diagnosing and treating mental health problems.

Answer 3

Psychiatry

Question 4

Basic research and teaching for the purpose of advancing knowledge in psychology.

Answer 4

Academic Psychology

Question 5

Use of psychological principles and methods to address the problems of the individual society, or industry.

Answer 5

Applied Psychology

Question 6

Human mental processes concerned with information and knowledge includes thinking, memory, language, intelligence, and perception of the world through the senses.

Answer 6

Cognition

Question 7

The philosophical movement founded by Rene Descartes which held that beliefs should be formed through the use of reason, rather than relying upon personal experience or the pronouncements of authorities.

Answer 7

Rationalism

Question 8

The view that the mind and matter(including the body) belong in separate categories and are constructed of different material.

Answer 8

Dualism

Question 9

A 17th-century philosophical movement which held that the mind had no innate content—personal experience was responsible for the development of all thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge.

Answer 9

British Empiricism

Question 10

The idea that knowledge should be obtained through personal experience.

Answer 10

Empirical

Question 11

A defunct psychological school founded by Edward Titchener, a student of Wilhelm Wundt believe that experience could be broken down into separate sensory components or “structures.” used introspection as a tool to investigate the structures of experience.

Answer 11

Structuralism

Question 12

The psychological school championed by William James which held that the mind could only be understood by referring to the purposes for which it was shaped through evolution.

Answer 12

Functionalism

Question 13

An association founded in 1892 by G. Stanley Hall and others to advance the interest of psychology as a profession and science.

Answer 13

American Psychological Association

Question 14

A theory and psychotherapeutic technique founded by Sigmund Freud and based upon the notion that human beings are driven by unconscious conflicts and desires origination primarily in experiences of early childhood.

Answer 14

Psychoanalysis

Question 15

The early movement in psychology founded by John B. Watson who held that only behavior—not internal mental states—could be studied scientifically.

Answer 15

Behaviorism

Question 16

The movement in psychology founded during the 1950s primarily by Carl Rodgers and Abraham Maslow as a reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism held that human behavior was not determined by unconscious drives or by learning, but that people had free will to choose. emphasized the intrinsic worth and dignity of the human being.

Answer 16

Humanistic Psychology

Question 17

Literally, “knowledge from within.” Obtaining knowledge or understanding without conscious effort or rational thought and often without conscious awareness is immediate and unexpected may contain nonempirical aspects, it is an empirical way of knowing because its development depends upon a lifetime of personal experiences.

Answer 17

Intuition

Question 18

A unique, systematic, self-correcting empirical method of obtaining knowledge about the natural world incorporates empirical observation and logical inference and is characterized by specific goals and methods is skeptical in outlook.

Answer 18

Science

Question 19

A classical sequence of five stops involved in the acquisition of scientific knowledge. In fact, science is often accomplished with variations on this sequence and as such, should more accurately be termed scientific methods.

Answer 19

Scientific Method

Question 20

A philosophical approach or point of view based upon the scientific method which proposes that compelling evidence of a claim should be presented before one comes to believe in the claim.

Answer 20

Skepticism

Question 21

A series of interrelated cognitive skills designed to help one see things as they actually are, free from bias and error.

Answer 21

Critical Thinking

Question 22

A specific testable prediction about what will happen given certain circumstances are often drawn from theories, which are sets of interconnected ideas and statements used to explain facts.

Answer 22

Hypothesis

Question 23

A set of interconnected ideas and statements used to explain facts.

Answer 23

Theory

Question 24

The particular aspect or level of a problem to which a theory is addressed.

Answer 24

Level of Analysis

Question 25

Nonscience performed for non scientific goal, but with the surface appearance of science.

Answer 25

Pseudoscience

Question 26

When a research study is repeated by other researchers working independently may be exact, following the procedures of the original study to the letter, or they may be conceptual—repeating the essence of the study but by using somewhat different procedures, variables, or operational definitions.

Answer 26

Replication

Question 27

This term is used differently in different contexts, but it is used here to refer to general strategies that may be used for conducting research. There are three basic categories: descriptive, experimental, and correlation.

Answer 27

Research Methods

Question 28

A study that characterizes a sample in relation to variables of interest to the researcher answer questions of who, what, when, and how, but cannot determine if one variable influences another. The category “descriptive Research” includes surveys, case studies, and naturalistic.

Answer 28

Descriptive Study

Question 29

A descriptive research method in which the researcher gathers detailed qualitative information about a single individual.

Answer 29

Case Study

Question 30

Any research study (generally descriptive research) which collects extremely detailed information that conveys the quality of the research participant’s experience. Qualitative data are very rich but do not easily lend themselves to quantitative (statistical) analysis.

Answer 30

Qualitative data

Question 31

Any research study in which collects data in a form the may be analyzed statistically. Typically, is conducted using larger samples than is possible in qualitative research projects.

Answer 31

Quantitative Research

Question 32

A descriptive research method used to obtain self-report data about people’s experiences, attitudes, or feelings.

Answer 32

Survey

Question 33

A relatively small group of individuals selected to represent a larger group—the population from which the sample is drawn.

Answer 33

Sample

Question 34

The larger group of interest to a researcher, from which he or she will draw a smaller sample for the purposes of conducting a research study.

Answer 34

Population

Question 35

Any sampling procedure in which the probability of an individual being selected for the sample is known in advance and selection is on a generally random basis (e.g., simple random sampling.)

Answer 35

Probability Sampling

Question 36

A sample that is not truly representative of the population from which it was drawn.

Answer 36

Biased Sample

Question 37

Potential biases caused by the way survey questions, or questionnaires used in other types of research, are worded.

Answer 37

Wording Effects

Question 38

A descriptive research method used to systematically observe “real life” behavior in a naturalistic setting.

Answer 38

Naturalistic Observation

Question 39

A method of study in which the researcher measures two or more variables as they already exist to see if there is an association (correlation) between them.

Answer 39

Correlational Research

Question 40

Any factor whose magnitude or category can vary.

Answer 40

Variable

Question 41

When a change in one variable can predict change in another variable because the variables are associated in some way. However, the association between the variables may not be causal in nature.

Answer 41

Correlation

Question 42

When an increase in one variable is associated (correlated) with an increase in another variable.

Answer 42

Positive Correlation

Question 43

When an increase in one variable is associated (correlated) with a decrease in another variable.

Answer 43

Negative Correlation

Question 44

A statistic which quantifies the strength and direction of correlation (association) between two variables. The ranges from -1.0 ( a perfect negative correlation) to +1.0 (a perfect positive correlation). A near 0 indicates no association between the variables in question.

Answer 44

Correlation Coefficient

Question 45

In correlational research, even if two variables are related causally, it may not be clear which variable caused the other to change.

Answer 45

Directionality

Question 46

In a correlational study, when a variable the researcher had not considered is responsible for observed effects in both of the variables of interest is also referred to as an illusory correlation.

Answer 46

Third Variable Problem

Question 47

When a change in one variable causes a change in another.

Answer 47

Causal Effect

Question 48

A research study where the experimenter satisfies all criteria necessary for causality to be inferred in the research results. These criteria usually include random assignment to conditions, manipulation of variables, use of control conditions, and control over confounding variables.

Answer 48

True Experiment

Question 49

The variable being manipulated in an experiment to determine possible effects on a dependent variable (DV). is “free” to take on any values the investigator decides to give it. These values are known as levels of the

Answer 49

Independent Variable (IV)

Question 50

The values assigned by the experimenter to the independent variable.

Answer 50

Levels of the Independent Variable

Question 51

The variable being measured in an experiment to determine if the manipulation of the independent variable has had any effect.

Answer 51

Dependent Variable (DV)

Question 52

The technical term used to describe the process of making a purposeful change in the independent variable (IV) to measure any resultant change in the dependent variable (DV).

Answer 52

Manipulation (of the independent variable)

Question 53

In an experiment, making certain that nothing else changes in the independent variable. More generally, the term may encompass any technique used to avoid the influence of confounding variables.

Answer 53

Control

Question 54

Groups to which participants may be assigned in an experiment. In an experiment with only one independent variable, each level of the independent variable is also known as a condition of the experiment.

Answer 54

Conditions (of an experiment)

Question 55

When each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions of the experiment (i.e., any of the levels of the independent variable).

Answer 55

Random Assignment to Conditions

Question 56

Those participants in an experiment who do not receive the level of independent variable that is of primary interest to the researchers, but are used instead for comparison purposes.

Answer 56

Control Group

Question 57

Those participants in an experiment who receive the level of independent variable whose effects on a dependent variable are of primary interest to the researchers.

Answer 57

Experimental Group

Question 58

In an experiment, any variable that exerts a measurable effect on the dependent variable without the knowledge of the experimenter. Technically, this means that a is one whose values change systematically along with changes in the values of the independent variable.

Answer 58

Confounding Variable

Question 59

The tendency for some research participants to intuit the hypotheses or purpose of the research study in which they participate, and to adjust their behavior in response to the “demands” of the situation.

Answer 59

Demand Characteristic

Question 60

The general desire of research participants to please the experimenter or give the experimenter what he or she “wants”.

Answer 60

Good Subject Tendency

Question 61

In an experiment, when the research participants are unaware of which level of the independent variable they have received and/or are unaware of the nature of the researcher’s hypothesis.

Answer 61

Blind

Question 62

In an experiment, when both those running the experiment and the research participants are unaware of which level of the independent variable each participant is receiving and/or are unaware of the nature of the researchers’ hypothesis.

Answer 62

Double-Blind

Question 63

A precise definition of a variable in terms that can be utilized for a research study.

Answer 63

Operational Definition

Question 64

The degree to which research results may generalize to the world outside the laboratory.

Answer 64

External Validity

Question 65

Basic Statistics which provide descriptions of a set of data (e.g., percentage, mean, median, mode).

Answer 65

Descriptive Statistics

Question 66

A descriptive statistic measuring the numerical average in a set of data.

Answer 66

Mean

Question 67

A descriptive statistic which reports the score above and below which 50% of the sample has scored—that is, the “middle” score.

Answer 67

Median

Question 68

A descriptive statistic representing the most frequently occurring score in a set of data.

Answer 68

Mode

Question 69

Statistics which help determine the probability that research results reflect actual relationships among variables, or which quantify the magnitude of this relationship.

Answer 69

Inferential Statistics

Question 70

An inferential statistical procedure that allows one to determine the probability that one’s research results reflect actual relationships among variables and are not due to chance factors.

Answer 70

Statistical Significance

Question 71

An inferential statistic that estimates the magnitude of the relationship between variables.

Answer 71

Effect Size

Question 72

A term used by Gerd Gigerenzer and his colleagues to describe a basic arithmetic understanding of the nature of statistical claims, particularly those used in health sciences.

Answer 72

Statistical Literacy

Question 73

Mental processes and events encompassing consciousness, emotion, motivation, and cognition(thought, memory, language, and so forth.)

Answer 73

Mind

Question 74

All the potentially observable or measurable activities of a living organism.

Answer 74

Behavior

Question 75

How genes and environments contribute to differences among people in attributes, abilities, personality, and behavior.

Answer 75

Behavior genetics

Question 76

Biological origins of behavior, focusing on the endocrine, immune, and nervous systems.

Answer 76

Biopsychology (psychobiology)

Question 77

The study of similarities and differences between human and non human animals.

Answer 77

Comparative psychology

Question 78

Thinking, learning and memory, intelligence, language, and other aspects of cognition.

Answer 78

Cognitive Psychology

Question 79

Cultural differences (and similarities) within and between societies.

Answer 79

Cross-cultural and ethnic psychology

Question 80

Change and continuity across the life span, from birth to death.

Answer 80

Developmental psychology (human development)

Question 81

How people learn in educational settings; evaluation of educational programs.

Answer 81

Education psychology

Question 82

The study of nonhuman animal behavior in controlled laboratory settings.

Answer 82

Experimental psychology

Question 83

How the structure and chemistry of the brain affect behavior; includes subspecialties such as cognitive neuroscience and behavioral neuroscience.

Answer 83

Neuroscience

Question 84

Individual differences among people in characteristic behavior.

Answer 84

Personality Psychology

Question 85

How situations affect the behavior of individuals, and how the behavior of individuals affects situations; includes the study of the self, group behavior, interpersonal relationships, attitude and belief formation, prejudice, and so forth.

Answer 85

Social Psychology

Question 86

Causes and treatments of serious mental health problems and ordinary personal, work, and school-related problems.

Answer 86

Clinical and Counseling Psychology

Question 87

The application of psychological methods and knowledge in the legal sphere (for example, in criminal investigations and litigation).

Answer 87

Forensic Psychology

Question 88

The interaction of psychology and health; includes the study of immune functions, emotion and health problems such as eating disorders and addiction. One subspecialty is sports psychology.

Answer 88

Health Psychology

Question 89

These psychologists help to train workers, increase productivity and job satisfaction, assist in career choice, and administer tests in organizational settings.

Answer 89

Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Question 90

School psychologists are trained to conduct testing in school settings, advise administrators, and offer counseling to students and teachers.

Answer 90

School Psychology

Question 91

Based on experiences.

Answer 91

Empirical

Question 92

Knowledge is taken on faith rather than experience.

Answer 92

Nonempirical

Question 93

A set of orderly rules for correct behavior, particularly within some specific discipline or workplace.

Answer 93

Ethics

Question 94

An institutional ethics body that must approve and monitor research studies involving human and animal participants.

Answer 94

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Question 95

When those participating in a research study have thorough understanding of the study’s potential risks and benefits is a cornerstone of the ethical conduct of research involving human beings.

Answer 95

Informed consent

Question 96

When the purpose of a study, its procedures, and its potential value are explained to a participant after his or her participation is complete is particularly important in studies which have involved some measure of deception.

Answer 96

Debriefing

Question 97

The multidisciplinary study of the nervous system.

Answer 97

Neuroscience

Question 98

The cell type that transmits information throughout the nervous system.

Answer 98

Neuron

Question 99

A neuron primarily responsible for communication to the muscles and organs.

Answer 99

Motor Neuron

Question 100

A neuron that transmits sensory information to the brain.

Answer 100

Sensory Neuron

Question 101

Communicates only with adjacent neuron.

Answer 101

Interneuron

Question 102

The branch-like projections of neurons that receive electrochemical stimulation from other neurons.

Answer 102

Dendrites

Question 103

Openings that are embedded in the dendrites of neurons to which neurotransmitters bind during the process of neuronal communication.

Answer 103

Synaptic Receptors

Question 104

The bulb-like end of the neuron containing the cell nucleus. Energy for the neuron is generated here, and waste is eliminated.

Answer 104

Cell body(soma)

Question 105

A narrow extension in many neurons that transmits electrical neural impulses from cell body to terminal.

Answer 105

Axon

Question 106

A bundle of axons (usually enclosed in a myelin sheath) that forms a communication channel within the central nervous system (brain or spine).

Answer 106

Tract

Question 107

An enclose bundle of axons forming a communication channel within the peripheral nervous system (outside of the brain or spine).

Answer 107

Nerve

Question 108

Fatty substance surrounding the axon of some neurons. Myelin increases the speed of neuronal transmission.

Answer 108

Myelin sheath

Question 109

The gap between myelin sheaths of axon segments.

Answer 109

Node of Ranvier

Question 110

The small bulb-like structure at the end of neuron axons that contains the vesicles from which neurotransmitters are released.

Answer 110

Terminal

Question 111

The juncture of the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron.

Answer 111

Synapse

Question 112

The miniscule space over which neurons pass their neurotransmitters, from the terminal of presynaptic neuron to the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron.

Answer 112

Synaptic Gap

Question 113

Cell type that builds the myelin sheath that surrounds the axon of some neurons, and helps to develop and maintain neuron synapses.

Answer 113

Glia

Question 114

The electrical impulse that conveys information from one neuron to another, or from the neuron to bodily muscles and glands.

Answer 114

Action Potential

Question 115

The “default” resting setting of a neuron—the setting that would be maintained if no action potentials were fired.

Answer 115

Resting Potential

Question 116

An atomic particle that carries primarily a positive or negative electrical charge.

Answer 116

Ion

Question 117

The resting potential balance between primarily negatively charged ions within a neuron and positively charged ions without.

Answer 117

Polarization

Question 118

A disruption of the resting potential balance between negatively and positively charged ions within and outside of the neuron begins the process of the firing of an action potential.

Answer 118

Depolarization

Question 119

Chemical substances that carry neural signals from one neuron to another across a neuronal synapse.

Answer 119

Neurotransmitter

Question 120

The “sending” neuron in neuronal communication.

Answer 120

Presynaptic Neuron

Question 121

The “receiving” neuron in neuronal communication.

Answer 121

Postsynaptic Neuron

Question 122

When the presynaptic neuron reabsorbs some of the neurotransmitter molecules it has released, following binding of the neurotransmitter to receptor sites in the postsynaptic neuron.

Answer 122

Reuptake

Question 123

Any substance that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter and binds to the neurotransmitter receptor.

Answer 123

Agonist

Question 124

Any substance that blocks the receptors of a particular neurotransmitter, decreasing the availability and effects of the neurotransmitter.

Answer 124

Antagonist

Question 125

Regulation of muscular activity, learning, and memory.

Answer 125

Acetylcholine

Question 126

Regulates how we respond to rewarding activities (the “reward system: and experiences of pleasure); affects attention, learning, and memory processes; and helps regulate bodily movement.

Answer 126

Dopamine

Question 127

Opiate-like neurotransmitters that provide analgesic (pain relief) and a sense of well-being.

Answer 127

Endorphins

Question 128

Tends to inhibit the firing of neurons and keeps overexcitation of neurons in check; ____-agonist drugs induce relaxations, intoxicating effects, relief from anxiety.

Answer 128

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Question 129

Tends to increase the speed and rate of neural transmission throughout the nervous systems; increase efficiency of learning and memory.

Answer 129

Glutamate

Question 130

Affects attention and impulsivity, learning and memory; helps regulate involuntary responses to stress.

Answer 130

Norepinephrine

Question 131

Affects mood (possibly including depression), sleep, nausea/vomiting, appetite, sexual behavior; may affect aggression.

Answer 131

Serotonin

Question 132

Helps regulate the experience of pain.

Answer 132

Substance P

Question 133

Reduces blood pressure and other indicators of stress; may be involved in promoting maternal behavior, bonding between mother and infant, and feeling of love.

Answer 133

Oxytocin

Question 134

A neurotransmitter that binds to the same receptor sites as opioid drugs and is associated with relief from pain.

Answer 134

Endorphin

Question 135

The brain and spinal cord. Organizes and interprets the information received from peripheral nervous system (PNS) and sends commands back to the PNS to take actions or make adjustments to bodily functions.

Answer 135

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Question 136

Thin, tubular bundle of nerve tracts contained in the vertebrae of the spinal column.

Answer 136

Spinal Cord

Question 137

Cell bodies, unmyelinated axons, dendrites, and glia.

Answer 137

Gray Matter

Question 138

Axons with myelin sheaths.

Answer 138

White Matter

Question 139

Automatic motor actions in response to stimulation. Spinal reflexes bypass the brain entirely.

Answer 139

Spinal Reflexes

Question 140

Circuits of neurons that generate routine, rhythmic movements and are controlled entirely by the spine with no input from the brain.

Answer 140

Central Pattern Generators

Question 141

Cranial and spinal nerves that allow communication to take place between the brain and body. Consists of two divisions: somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.

Answer 141

Peripheral Nervous System

Question 142

The nerves that regulate voluntary actions and convey sensory information to the brain.

Answer 142

Somatic Nervous System

Question 143

A part of the peripheral nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic subsystems that regulate involuntary activities of muscles, glands, and organs.

Answer 143

Autonomic Nervous System

Question 144

Division of autonomic nervous systems that mobilizes the body for arousal, particularly in the response to a threat of some sort, but also in response to certain other conditions.

Answer 144

Sympathetic Nervous System

Question 145

Division of the autonomic nervous system that returns the body to resting state following arousal and maintains that resting state.

Answer 145

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Question 146

Brain imaging technique that uses radio waves and protons within a magnetic field to produce detailed images of the brain or other neural tissue.

Answer 146

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Question 147

A lower geographic area of the brain containing the cerebellum, medulla, pons, and reticular formation.

Answer 147

Hindbrain

Question 148

A small, lower geographic area of the brain containing the inferior and superior colliculi, among other structures.

Answer 148

Midbrain

Question 149

The second largest structure in the central nervous system, located in the hindbrain. coordinates sensory inputs and affects balance by assisting visual-spatial perception. It is also involved at least to some degree in attention, learning, and memory, and appropriate expression of emotion.

Answer 149

Cerebellum (“little brain”)

Question 150

The large, upper geographic area of the brain controlling the “higher” brain functions. Consists of two cerebral hemispheres, each of which contains a limbic systems, cerebral cortex, and thalamus.

Answer 150

Forebrain

Question 151

The forebrain is divided nearly symmetrically into left and right hemispheres connected by the bundle of axons known as the corpus collosum. The structures of each hemisphere correspond almost exactly to those in the opposite hemisphere, although there are also subtle, but important, differences left and right.

Answer 151

Cerebral Hemispheres

Question 152

Bundle of axons (white matter) that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

Answer 152

Corpus Callosum

Question 153

A group of large structures and smaller nuclei that regulate mood, emotion, memory, and basic drives. Includes at least the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia, and nucleus accumbens.

Answer 153

Limbic System

Question 154

A lower forebrain structure that conveys sensory information to the cerebral cortex and receives instructions from the cortex regarding the regulation of sensory and emotional signals.

Answer 154

Thalamus

Question 155

The outer layers of hemispheres of the forebrain. Interprets raw sensory information, initiates voluntary movement, and is home to higher cognitive processes.

Answer 155

Cerebral Cortex

Question 156

Four large divisions of the cerebral cortex into which specific brain structures are grouped named after for the skull bones beneath which they lie: occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal.

Answer 156

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Question 157

Cerebral cortex lobe containing the primary visual cortex (VI) and visual association areas.

Answer 157

Occipital Lobe

Question 158

Lobe of cerebral cortex containing the somatosensory cortex and somatosensory association areas.

Answer 158

Parietal Lobe

Question 159

Lobe of cerebral cortex containing the auditory cortex, auditory association areas, and Wernicke’s area.

Answer 159

Temporal Lobe

Question 160

The unique specializations of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.

Answer 160

Hemispheric Specialization

Question 161

A surgical procedure used to treat epilepsy, where the corpus callosum is severed of partially severed.

Answer 161

Split-Brain Surgery (callosotomy)

Question 162

The brain’s ability to change in response to learning, practice, and sensory input; and the ability of specialized regions of the brain to adapt if necessary to perform tasks for which they are not ordinarily used.

Answer 162

Plasticity

Question 163

A brain imaging technology by which recordings are made of magnetic are made of magnetic fields generated by neural activity.

Answer 163

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Question 164

The system of glands and the hormones they produce.

Answer 164

Endocrine System

Question 165

A bodily organ that synthesizes and/or releases hormones.

Answer 165

Gland

Question 166

A chemical synthesized and/or released by a gland.

Answer 166

Hormone

Question 167

Gland situated in the brain that releases the hormone melatonin, important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle.

Answer 167

Pineal Gland

Question 168

Gland situated in the brain that secretes a variety of hormones and triggers other glands to secrete their hormones. Help regulate blood pressure, body growth, aspects of pregnancy, childbirth and lactation, and the functioning of sex and reproductive organs.

Answer 168

Pituitary Gland

Question 169

Branch of neuroscience that studies the neural basis of behavior. Behavioral neuroscientists study the entire nervous system, not just the brain, and they may use nonhuman as well as human animals for study.

Answer 169

Behavioral Neuroscience

Question 170

Pseudoscientific theory that proposed that personality characteristics could be determined by skilled examinations of bumps on the top of the skull.

Answer 170

Phrenology

Question 171

Literally, “pieces of information.” Singular: datum.

Answer 171

Data

Question 172

An early neuroscientific theory proposing that all parts of the cortex contributed equally to all aspects of mind.

Answer 172

Equipotentiality

Question 173

Branch of neuroscience that focuses on the human brain to reveal the neural basis of cognition and emotion.

Answer 173

Cognitive Neuroscience

Question 174

The use of MRI whereby continuous images of the brain are generated while a research participant engages in specific tasks.

Answer 174

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Question 175

These researchers demonstrated that the reticular formation of the brain stem was essential to consciousness.

Answer 175

Moruzzi and Magoun (1949)

Question 176

Through their study of “Patient H. M.” Scoville and Milner showed that damage to the hippocampus could impair or destroy the ability to form new memories—helping to establish that memory has a neural basis.

Answer 176

Scoville and Milner (1957)

Question 177

By electrically stimulating various cortical regions of the brains of research participants—and nothing their reactions—these researchers helped “map” locations of the brain that correspond to specific body parts.

Answer 177

Penfield and Perot (1963)

Question 178

In 1972, Godfrey Hounsfield developed computerized tomography (CT or “CAT scan”), the forerunner of contemporary brain imaging technologies such as MRI and PET.

Answer 178

Hounsfield (1972)

Question 179

In 1996, Robert Sapolsky finally demonstrated scientifically what many had suspected was true about the damaging effects of chronic stress on the brain.

Answer 179

Sapolsky

Question 180

A long-standing debate over whether innate biology or environmental experience is the most critical factor in the development of human behavioral characteristics.

Answer 180

Nature-Nurture Debate

Question 181

A fundamental way that organisms change. Learning is difficult to define precisely, but it involves relatively enduring change in knowledge and/or behavior resulting from specific experiences.

Answer 181

Learning

Question 182

Factual knowledge that can be articulated and transmitted to others. Explicit knowledge is “knowing that,” as compared with procedural knowledge, which is “knowing how.”

Answer 182

Explicit Knowledge

Question 183

Knowledge that is applied to the performance of a task.Procedural knowledge reflects skills and abilities—”knowing how” as compared with “knowing that” (explicit knowledge)

Answer 183

Procedural Knowledge

Question 184

A simple type of nonassociative learning that occurs when a stimulus comes to elicit decreasing response from an organism as a result of the organism’s repeated exposure to the stimulus over time. “I got used to it” expresses the idea of habituation.

Answer 184

Habituation

Question 185

A simple type of nonassociative learning that occurs when a stimulus comes to elicit increased response from an organism as a result of the organism’s repeated exposure to the stimulus over time.

Answer 185

Sensitization

Question 186

Changes in an organism’s knowledge or behavior that result from the association of two or more events or stimuli, or of a stimulus and a response. The most common forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and vicarious conditioning (observational learning).

Answer 186

Associative Learning

Question 187

A type of associative learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning occurs when an innate (or otherwise reflexive( response known as the unconditioned response (UCR) is triggered by a neutral stimulus as a result of repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The UCS is a stimulus that would naturally trigger the reflexive response without a conditioning procedure.

Answer 187

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)

Question 188

A stimulus that has no natural relationship to an innate response it nonetheless eventually comes to elicit through classical conditioning. For example, a tone has no natural relationship to the human eye-blink response, but a person can be conditioned to blink when hearing a tone if the tone has been repeatedly paired with puffs of air blown at the eye.

Answer 188

Neutral Stimulus

Question 189

In classical conditioning, the UCS is the stimulus that naturally triggers the innate (or otherwise reflexive) response, known as the unconditioned response (UCR).

Answer 189

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Question 190

In classical conditioning, the UCR is the innate or otherwise reflexive response triggered without conditioning by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Answer 190

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Question 191

In classical conditioning, the CS is the originally neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the innate, unconditioned response (UCR) after conditioning.

Answer 191

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Question 192

In classical conditioning, the term conditioned response (CR) is used to describe the innate unconditioned response (UCR) after it been has come to be elicited by the a neutral stimulus.

Answer 192

Conditioned Response (CR)

Question 193

In classical conditioning, acquisition is the process of acquiring a conditioned response.

Answer 193

Acquisition

Question 194

A form of classical conditioning in which an organism is first conditioned to a neutral stimulus; and then that stimulus is used to condition the organism to a new neutral stimulus. For example, a dog conditioned to salivate upon hearing a tone by pairing the tine with food, may then be conditioned to associate the tone with a new neutral stimulus—a bell. The dog will then salivate upon hearing the bell, even if the bell was new actually paired with the unconditioned stimulus of food.

Answer 194

Second-order Conditioning

Question 195

When a learned behavior ceases to be performed. In classical conditioning, extinction will occur when the conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Answer 195

Extinction

Question 196

When an extinguished behavior reemerges (but in a somewhat weaker form) after the organism has rested from exposure to the classically conditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery differs from renewal, where an extinguished behavior reemerges specifically because the organism is placed in a context different from the one in which extinction occurred.

Answer 196

Spontaneous Recovery

Question 197

In classical conditioning, renewal is a resurgence of an extinguished behavior if the animal is placed in a different context from the one in which extinction originally occurred and the original conditioned stimulus (CS) is once again presented.

Answer 197

Renewal

Question 198

In classical conditioning, when an animal displays a conditioned response (CR) to a neutral stimulus that is similar, but not identical, to the conditioned stimulus (CS).

Answer 198

Generalization

Question 199

In classical conditioning, when one neutral stimulus produces a conditioned response, but another, similar neutral stimulus does not.

Answer 199

Discrimination

Question 200

Those taking the functionalist perspective on learning believe that learning mechanisms such as classical conditioning evolved because they fulfilled functions—in this case, preparing the organism for what is to come. Theorists taking this perspective believe that learning mechanisms evolved because they increased the survival and reproductive success of organisms that possessed them.

Answer 200

Functionalist Perspective

Question 201

Edward Thorndike’s discovery that behaviors which lead to a satisfying state of affairs are “stamped in,” which behaviors that lead to an unsatisfying or annoying state of affairs are “stamped out.” The law of effect formed the basis for B. F. Skinner’s discoveries or operant conditioning principles.

Answer 201

Law of Effect

Question 202

A form of conditioning in which the consequences of a behavior affect the probability that the behavior will be repeated in the future.

Answer 202

Operant Conditioning (Operant Learning, instrumental learning)

Question 203

B. F. Skinner’s version of behaviorism, also referred to as experimental analysis of behavior. Radical behaviorists propose that all behavior is lawful—and any given behavior can be analyzed empirically by examining the reinforcements and punishments which follow the behavior. The term “radical” has been applied to this school of psychology because radical behaviorists believe that psychology can only be a science of behavior and never a science of “mind.”

Answer 203

Radical Behaviorism

Question 204

The apparatus B. F. Skinner designed to study operant learning in rats. THe operant chamber includes a container of food pellets in a container mounted to the outside of the cage, designed so that the pellets will be delivered to the rat when the rat presses down a lever near its food tray. The cage is placed within a soundproof, temperature controlled, ventilated chamber.

Answer 204

Operant Chamber (“Skinner Box”)

Question 205

When the consequence of a behavior increases the likelihood that the behavior will continue of be repeated in the future.

Answer 205

Reinforcement

Question 206

When the consequence of a behavior decreases the likelihood that it will continue or be repeated in the future.

Answer 206

Punishment

Question 207

When a behavior is reinforced through the addition or presentation of something that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. Generally it is something pleasant or rewarding that is added or presented.

Answer 207

Positive Reinforcement

Question 208

When a behavior is reinforced through the removal of something that decreases the likelihood of the behavior. Generally it is something aversive or unpleasant that is removed in negative reinforcement.

Answer 208

Negative Reinforcement

Question 209

When the consequence of a behavior is the addition or presentation of something that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. Generally it is something unpleasant or aversive that is added or presented.

Answer 209

Positive Punishment

Question 210

Successive reinforcement of those operant behaviors that come increasingly closer to the behavior one ultimately wishes to reinforce.

Answer 210

Shaping by Successive Approximation (Shaping for Short)

Question 211

When the consequence of a behavior is the removal of something reinforcing, generally something rewarding.

Answer 211

Negative Punishment

Question 212

Any behavior of an organism that produces a consequence that is either reinforcing or punishing. In radical behaviorist experimental research, the operant behavior is the behavior the experimenter is attempting to shape or condition.

Answer 212

Operant Behavior

Question 213

Any consequence of behavior that is intrinsically reinforcing to virtually any member of the species being conditioned. Primary reinforcers are intrinsically reinforcing because they are essential for the survival or reproduction of the of the organism (examples: food, water, sex, air, shelter, etc.).

Answer 213

Primary Reinforcer

Question 214

A reinforcer that has become associated through conditioning with one or more primary reinforcers (Examples: money and status).

Answer 214

Secondary Reinforcer

Question 215

When a behavior is reinforced periodically rather than continuously. Partial reinforcement can be determined by the passage of time (an interval schedule) or the number of times an organism performs a behavior (a ratio schedule).

Answer 215

Partial Reinforcement

Question 216

When a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

Answer 216

Continuous Reinforcement

Question 217

The name given to research findings which show that conditioned behaviors are more enduring and difficult to extinguish when they are reinforced periodically rather than continuously.

Answer 217

Partial Reinforcement Effect

Question 218

A partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement for the first operant behavior after a specific interval of time has passed.

Answer 218

Fixed-Interval (FI) schedule

Question 219

A partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals.

Answer 219

Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule

Question 220

A partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after a specific number of operant behavioral responses.

Answer 220

Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule

Question 221

A partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of behavioral responses.

Answer 221

Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule

Question 222

A mental representation of the structure, location, or attributes of some phenomenon.

Answer 222

Cognitive Map

Question 223

Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement, and that is not apparent in behavior.

Answer 223

Latent Learning

Question 224

The psychological school founded by Edward Tolman.Cognitive behaviorists agree with radical behaviorists that behavior is lawful and can be analyzed using concepts of reinforcement and punishment, but they disagree that this analysis must necessarily exclude cognition. Cognitive behaviorists pioneered the concepts of cognitive maps and latent learning.

Answer 224

Cognitive Behaviorism

Question 225

When an instinctive pattern of behavior interferes with the operant conditioning of a behavior.

Answer 225

Instinctive Drift

Question 226

Learning through the observation of others. Mechanisms of observational learning include modeling and vicarious reinforcement.

Answer 226

Observational Learning

Question 227

Learning through imitation of the behaviors of individuals whom one admires.

Answer 227

Modeling

Question 228

Learning through observing the rewarding or punishing consequences of other people’s behavior.

Answer 228

Vicarious conditioning

Question 229

A neuron that fires both when an animal performs an action and when the animal observes another performing the same action. Mirror neurons are associated with imitation of others’ behavior, and comprehension of others’ thoughts, intentions, and emotions.

Answer 229

Mirror Neurons