exam 1 Flashcards
unit 1
the scientific method
what is the scientific method
definition
a systematic approach fro answering questions that helps the questioner have more confidence in the knowledge discovered; no one single method
the scientific method
steps of the scientific method
make an observation, form a research question, construct a hypothesis, chose a study design, collect data, analyze data, communicate results
the scientific method
why is the scientific method used
used to answer research questions and investigate questions of interest
peer review method
peer review
definition
the process by which other scientific experts in the field review and evaluate the quality of research before it is reported in a publication
a way experts fact checking info from other experts
peer review method
how to find peer reviewed journals
specified and specialized search engines (databases) usually have a filter; through MU library
library assignment
scientific theory
a well substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natuarl world confirmed through repeated observations and experimentations
explains why something happens; EXPLANATION
scientific law
a statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some aspect of the world
statement that describes; says what happened
hypothesis
an educated prediction that provides a testable explanation of a phenomenon
laws vs theory
scientific law vs scientific theory
scientific law describes what nature does under certain conditions, theory explains why or how it does it; theory is used more in research; both are based on repeated observations
write a hypothesis
steps of writing a hypothesis
- formulate research question
- identify conceptual definitions for variable
- identify the direction of the hypothesis
- operationalize each variable and participants of interest
- state the final hypohteiss as a statement (NOT A QUESTION)
- identify the independent and dependent variables
hypothesis is an if/than statement
write a hypothesis
conceptual definitions
defining a variable in theoretical terms; defining what you mean in your hypothesis; typically big ideas that need to be narrowed down to study
broader definition, scope of the variable
write a hypothesis
operational definition
determining how we will use the variables in the study; how will you measure the conceptual definition
measurement of variable
write a hypothesis
independent variable
the variable that influences the dependent variable; in experiments, the research manipulates or controls this variable; in nonexperimental studies, it is the explanatory or predictor variable and is not manipulated by the research
write a hypothesis
dependent variable
the variable measured in association with changes in the independent variable; the outcome or effect. in nonexperimental studies, it is referred to as the criterion or response variable
different kinds of study methods
experimental method
a research method in which the experimenter controls and manipulates the independent variable, allowing the establishment of a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables
different kinds of study methods
nonexperimental method
correlational design
a design in which there is no control or manipulation of the independent variable; teh cause and effect relationships between variables cannot be established; refers to the IV as the explanatory or predictor variable and the DV as the criterion or response variable
program evaluations
program evaluation
using the scientific method to assess whether an organized activity is acheiving its intended objectives; start with a goal in mind then evaluate the extent to which the goals are achieved
similar to a progress check
program evaluations
program evaluation vs. other types of research methods
program evaluations check to see if what is already being done is working; other methods of research tend to establish relationships and discovering if one thing effects another while this looks to see if what is done is working
program evaluations
phases of a program evaluation
- planning phase: identify key stakeholders, describe the program, clarify the evaluation’s goal, create an education plan
- execution phase: gather the data and analyze it
- communication of results: form conclusions, make recommendations, report the results
program evaluations
three types of program evaluations
needs evaluation, process evaluation, outcomes evaluation
program evaluations
needs evaluation
an assessment of which features of a program are most valuable and who they benefit the most
program evaluations
process evaluation
an assessment of a general program operation, including whom the program serves and how the program delivers services to that population
program evaluations
outcomes evaluation
an assessment of whether a program effectively produces outcomes that are consistent with stated objectives or goals
outlier
a case or instance that is distinct from the majority of other cases; an oddball
pseudoscience
claims or beliefs that are misrepresented as being derived from the use of the scientific method
biases
overconfidence phenomenon
the tendency to be overly confident in the correctness of our own judgments
example: i do not need to study because i am smart; failing the test because you did not study
biases
availability heuristic
mental shortcut strategy for judging the likelihood of an event or situation to occur based on how easily we can think of similar or relevant instances
example: thinking you will be a victim of crime because you saw a news story of a crime committed in your area
example: thinking you will be in a plane crash because you watched a show in which the cahracters got into a plane crash
biases
representative heuristic
mental shortcut strategy for determining the likelihood of an event by how much it resembles what we consider to be a typical example of that event
example: seeing someone with glasses, hair pinned, and holding books and thinking they are a librarian but they are really a rockstar
biases
truthiness
stephen colbert’s term to represent the occasional tendency to accept an explanation/phenomenon simply because its a gut feeling
biases
better-than-average effect
tendency to overestimate our skills, abilities, and performance when comparing ourselves to others
example: thinking you are a better driver then most people but in reality you are just an average driver
biases
hindsight biases
a sense that we “knew it all along” after we learn the actual outcome
example: you get an answer wrong on a test and say that you should’ve put letter A becuase you knew it was letter A, even though you did not because you wrote down letter C
example: after a breakup, a person saying that they knew the relationship would never work out or never last
data and research
non empirical research
gaining knowledge with the use of nonsystematic methods such as the examination of personal experiences and opinions
PERSONAL OPINIONS
data and research
empirical research
gaining knowledge with the use of systematic observation, experience, or measurement; an approach in which the experimenter uses direct and indirect observations or experiences to test the research questions
data and research
replication
recreating another person’s study to see if the findings are the same
IRB and IACUC
institutional review board (IRB)
a board that reviews the ethical merit of all the human research conducted at an institution; mission of IRB is to provide ethical oversight of projects
IRB and IACUC
process of IRB
researchers submit a proposal to the IRB that explains the studies, has benefits/risks laid out, contains consent forms, has debreif scripts, confidentiality plans, etc.; the IRB then classifies the study based on level of potential risk and particiapnts involved; it is then reviewed and either approved or denied
IRB and IACUC
different kinds of IRB approval
- exempt classification: poses less than minimal risk and includes a nonvulnerable population
- expedited classification: research poses minimal risk typically encountered in everyday life; includes a nonvulnerable population
- full review classification: poses greater-than-minimal risk typically encountered in everyday life, OR includes a vulnerable population
IRB and IACUC
institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)
a board that reviews the ethical merit and research procedures for all animal research conducted within an institution and ensures research animals ahve proper living conditions
ethics
what are the 5 ethical principles
beneficence and nonmaleficince, justice, respect for persons, fidelity and responsiblity, integrity
ethics
beneficence and nonmaleficence
- beneficence: actively promoting the welfare of toehrs; an ethical obligation to maximize benefit in research studies
- nonmaleficence: do no harm; ethical obligation to mitigate or eliminate risks to study participants
- confidentiality: researcher knowing the identity of subjects, but keeping the information protected
- anonymity: guarantee that individual responses cannot be linked back to individual participants
- cost-benefit analysis: a systematic process in which a researcher weighs all the potential and known benefits against all the potential and know risks before conducting a study
ethics
justice
- fairness in selecting study participants and in determining which particiapnts receive the benefits of participation and which bear the burden of risk
- random assignment
- avoid targeting vulnerable individuals and use safeguards to ensure these groups are not exploited
ethics
respect for persons
- participation must be voluntary; participants must knowingly and willing participate
- autonomy: freely making an informed decision about participation in research
- obtained informed consent
- assent: active affirmation of a desire to participate from a person who does not have the ability to consent themselves; consent also is sought from guardian
ethics
fidelity and responsibility
remind researchers that they must never engage in behaviors that violate the trust others have in scientifc process
ethics
integrity
- highlights scientists’ ethical responsibility to be forthright and honest
- scientific integrity: a commitment to intellectual honesty and adherence to ethical principles in science
ethics
history of the ethical principles
- nuremberg code: ethical principles created in 1947 in response to the horrible atrocities and human experimentation committed by the Nazis under the guise of research
- belmont report: 1979 program that expanded upon these ethical standards for research and outlined 3 of the 5 ethical principles (beneficence, justice, and respect for persons)
ethics
confidentiality vs. anonymity
- confidentiality: refers to the researcher knowing the identity of the subject but taking steps to make sure the identity is protected from others
- anonymity: when the identity of the individual is not know to the researchers and responses cannot be traced back to the participants
ethics
physical harm
physical toll that study particiapnts may havel potential risks to participants
ethics
psychological harm
a psychological toll that study participation may have, such as stress, negative emotions, or loss of self-esteem; a potential risk to particpants (must be dispelled before participant leave – short term effects)
ethics
consent vs. assent
- consent: can give consent when 18 or older; parents give consent for children, state does for prisoners, etc.
- assent: when a person isn’t old enough to give consent, they give assent to want to participate; need consent in addition to assent
ethics
vulnerable populations
pregnant women, prisoners, children/minors, disabled people, people with mental health issues
ethics
plagiarism
representing others’ work or ideas as our own, without giving proper credit
apa writer
parts of an apa paper
- title page: first page of APA style research report that identifies title of the work, the authors, and the institutional affiliation
- abstract: a short (120 to 250 word) summary of an entire research report that addresses the research topic, methodology used, findings, and conclusions
- introduction: provides background literature on topic and justification of the importance for work as well as the hypothesis
- method: researcher provides details about the sample, materials, and procedures of collecting data
- results: provides information about how the hypotheses were tested; explanation with statistical language, narrative, and reference to tables/graphs
- discussion: researcher interprets, explains, and applies results of study
- reference page: author provides identifying info about cited materials
apa writer
important parts of apa style
- active voice (subject presented first)
- continuity
- precision
- conciseness
- bias free, inclusive language
apa writer
writing inclusively includes consideration to these groups
- age
- disability
- gender
- intersectionality
- participation in research
- racial and ethnic identity
- sexual orientation
- socioeconomic status
must use language that the group itself prefers when writing
apa writer
identity first language
puts the identity before the person
example: an autistic person
apa writer
person first language
puts the person before the identity
example: a person with autism
ethics
tuskegee study violations
autonomy, beneficence and nonmaleficence, trust, justice, fidelity
apa writer
in text citations
parenthetical citations
- one author: (last name, year)
- two authors: (last name & last name, year)
- more than two authors (last name et al., year)
- group author: (group title/name, year)
narrative citations
- one author: LastName (year)
- two authors: LastName and LastName (year)
- more than two authors: LastName et al. (year)
- group author: Group Name/Title (year)
apa writer
citing multiple works by different authors
write the works alphabetically (in the same order in which they appear in the reference list), separate by semicolons
example: (e.g., Barker & Ramirez, 2019; Miller et al., 2019; Pew Research Center, 2016)
apa writer
citing multiple works by the same author
order those citations chronologically by the year of publication; write the author once, followed by the dates separated by commas
example: (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2003, 2015, 2018; Zakorsky, n.d., 2016, 2019, in press)
apa writer
components of a reference list citation
-author (person, persons, or group responsible for the work - last name and initials)
- date (date work was published, or “n.d.” for no date)
- title (title of cited work, only first word capital and first word following a colon)
- source (location of where researchers can retrieve cited work)
- double spaced, hanging indent
apa writer
format of article citation
Last Name, First/Middle Initial. (use commas to list multiple authors with & in between the last two). (date). Title. Title of Journal, Volume # (Issue #), pages. DOI link
example: Burns, D. J., Reid, J. S., Toncar, M., Anderson, C., & Wells, C. (2008). The effect of gender on the motivation of members of generation Y college students to volunteer.* Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing*, 19(1), 99–118.
double spaced with hanging indent
