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BIO234_Animal Conservation and Welfare > Ex-situ conservation and Zoo biology > Flashcards

Ex-situ conservation and Zoo biology Flashcards

1
Q

What is in-situ conservation?

A

conservation on-site i.e. in the wild

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2
Q

what is ex-situ conservation?

A

conservation off-site i.e. in captivity

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3
Q

What are the ex-situ conservation facilities?

A
  • gene banks & seed banks
  • zoos, safari parks & aquaria
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4
Q

Gene banks & seed banks

A

gene banks = biorepositories that preserve genetic material
For animal - they collect + hold tissues, cells, gametes (sperm and egg cells), and DNA of endangered animals in cryogenic freezers - “frozen zoos” - store samples for long periods of time
samples used later to assist with reproduction through technologies such as artificial insemination and in vitro fertilisation

these technologies = more common over past several decades, numerous examples of use to impregnate living females of threatened animal species
gene banks = important source of material for emerging technologies, e.g. cloning

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5
Q

what is artificial insemination

A

introduction of male’s sperm into a female’s cervix or uterine cavity to try to achieve pregnancy

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6
Q

what is in vitro fertilisation

A

fertilisation of an egg with sperm outside the body, followed by implantation of the embryo into the uterus

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7
Q

what is cloning

A

the process of creating a new multicellular organism through asexual reproduction of cells

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8
Q

Zoos, safari parks & aquaria

A

human-built enclosures & displayed to public

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9
Q

Evolution of zoos and aquariums

A

began as menageries - put animals on display, first for royalty, then general public
20th century evolved into zoological parks that had dual purpose in entertainment and research

2015 - World Zoo Organisation and the Captive Breeding Specialist Group of IUCN published World Zoo Conservation Strategy - zoos and aquariums to evolve to conservation centers of 21st century - address sustainable relationships between humans and nature, explain values of ecosystems and importance of conserving biological diversity

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10
Q

Regulations of zoos, safari parks and aquaria

A
  • 1000s of zoos/safari parks/aquaria/game reserves/rescue centres/sanctuaries around the world
  • small fraction accredited by organisation that govern and oversee regulations for the care of wild animals in captivity
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11
Q

Regulations of zoos, safari parks and aquaria
UK - Zoo Licensing Act 1981

A
  • all zoos need license (zoos = collections of non-domestic animals open to public for 7+ days per year)
  • regular formal and informal inspections
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12
Q

Regulations of zoos, safari parks and aquaria
Conservation requirements

A
  • keep animals in an environment suitable for their species
  • do as much as possible to stop any animals escaping
  • stop pests and vermin getting into the zoo
  • keep records of the zoo’s collection
  • help educate people about biodiversity

Zoo operators:
- conservation research or training
- sharing conservation information
- breeding wild animals in captivity
- repopulate an area or reintroduce species into the wild

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13
Q

Regulations of zoos, safari parks and aquaria
BIAZA - Professional body

A
  • over 100 members
  • zoos must undertake significant work in the fields of:
    • animal welfare
    • conservation
    • education
    • research
  • Folly Farm, Plantasia and Manor Wildlife Park are full members
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14
Q

Regulations of zoos, safari parks and aquaria
Part of global network, endorsed by IUCN

A

provide:
- specialist advice
- husbandry resources
- focus groups
- conferences
- communicate with government e.g. on welfare regulations, bird flu, Brexit, covid support for Zoos etc.

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15
Q

Regulations of zoos, safari parks and aquaria
EAZA

A

Over 340 members organisations in 41 countries
- focused campaigns every 1-2 years
- Runs European Endangered Species Programmes
- & European studbooks
- Nutrition group
- Databases & training courses

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16
Q

Regulations of zoos, safari parks and aquaria
WAZA

A

Over 400 members worldwide (inc BIAZA & EAZA)
- keeps international studbooks for endangered species
- produced World Conservation Strategy
- Global Zoo Conservation Strategies
- Communication & voice

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17
Q

What do zoos do?

A
  1. Education
  2. Research
  3. Ex-situ conservation
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18
Q

Education in zoos

A
  • lots of potential
  • different demographics form other conservation organisations

Example:
- 2015 - World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) reported annual visitation to zoos and aquariums of >700 million people
- 2019 - the Association of Zoos and Aquariums in North America reported annual attendance that was higher than 2017-2018 attendance for any single sports league

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19
Q

How do zoo visitors learn?

A
  • signs & information
  • visitor talks
  • direct contact with animals
20
Q

How effective is public education in zoos?

A

Learn - facts, attitudes and behaviours, conservation engagement?

mixed evidence - area for future research
- need display animals in authentic environments & conditions
- respectful not dominionistic

Formal courses and taught opportunities for:
- school children
- higher and further education
- local & international conservationists
- PhD
- MRes

21
Q

Research in Zoos

A
  • behaviour
  • welfare
  • husbandry
  • endocriminology
  • captive breeding improvements
  • conservation genetics
  • veterinary
  • Zoo Biology journal - publishes ~70 research articles & reports per year
22
Q

Ex-situ conservation
Captive breeding

A

maintaining reproducing populations of plants and animals in artificial environments
E.g. Père David’s deer (aka Milu)
- extinct in wild in 1990
- 11th Duke of Bedford formed herd at Woburn Abbey
- only ~3 founders contributed genes
- now ~5000 individuals
- reintroduced population - mostly in fenced parks in China
- estimated 600 unfences (escaped)

currently 80 species listed as ‘extinct in the wild’ by IUCN. Including:
- Panamanian golden frog
- Guam kingfisher
- Socorro isopod
- Franklin Tree
- Wood’s cycad
- Brome of the Ardennes

captive breeding = challenging - knowledge of species ecology & biology required
- ideally parents conceive naturally & rear offspring

23
Q

Other techniques of captive breeding

A
  • hand rearing & cross-fostering - useful when parenting problems, can increase reproductive output e.g. double clutching in birds
  • artificial insemination & in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) - species that lose interest in mating in captivity, can transport sperm to maintain genetic diversity. can use surrogate mothers with IVF
24
Q

Issue - Genetic issues: low genetic diversity & inbreeding vs outbreeding depression & hybridisation
Solutions

A
  • E.g. Bornean & Sumatran orangutan hybrids don’t live as long
  • Can be difficult to identify hybridisation
  • Doesn’t always cause problems

Solutions:
- species 360 & ZIMS - database with info on each individual
- used for population management
- studbooks - record pedigrees / parentage
- genotyping can be conducted to fin suitable breeding pairs

25
Q

Issue - adaptation to captive environment

A
  • can be physiological or behavioural
  • e.g. large white butterflies become heavier with smaller wings
  • e.g. old field mice become less responsive to predators
  • e.g. captive golden lion tamarins have poor foraging skills
26
Q

Issue - adaptation to captive environment
ADAPTATION

A

Ex-situ can exert natural selection on captive populations, cause genetic adaptation to artificial environments - reduce rates of survival and reproduction when introduced to wild

Lewis and Thomas (2001) - example of maladaptive traits related to dispersal and reproduction developing in a culture of the large white (or cabbage) butterfly, Pieris brassicae (L.) - held captive for 100-150 generations - captive individuals = heavier and smaller wings w/ lower wing aspect ratios than wild counterparts - would make it more difficult for butterflies to fly, disperse, and evade predators if in wild
- this can affect vertebrates and invertebrates that reared in ex-situ conservation programs, decreasing likelihood that the species re-established in wild

27
Q

Issue - adaptation to captive environment
BEHAVIOURAL MALADAPTATION

A
  • captive breeding generate changes in animal behaviour - maladaptive when individuals reintroduced to wild
  • animals raised in captivity = less capable of hunting, foraging for food, less able to avoid predators in wild -> lead to starvation and death
  • maladaptation = most common in social animals, such as primates, teach their offspring what to do, and what not to do, to survive - e.g. captive-raised golden lion tamarins often die after being released in wild because haven’t learned to climb or forage for food -> leads to continuing population declines, despite reintroduction - species unable to produce viable offspring
  • released animals = display more risk-taking behaviour - e.g. salmon bred in captivity fail to show behaviours needed to avoid predators, and they experience higher mortality than wild counterparts - H/E salmon reared in environment enriched with natural predators showed less risk-taking behaviours and were more likely to survive - providing appropriate training for captive animals may be needed before they are released to wild
28
Q

Issue - adaptation to captive environment
Solution (if genetic and if developmental)

A

If genetic:
- minimise numebr of generations in captivity
- use sperm atc from wild populations (can freeze gametes)

If developmental:
- environmental enrichment / naturalistic rearing conditions
- behavioural training (from humans or wild-caught individuals)

also pre-release testing - only release those most likely to survive

29
Q

Environmental enrichment & behavioural training

A
  • born in wild - learn survival behaviours, e.g. forage/hunt, what to eat, avoid predators, how to interact socially w/ same species
  • H/E raised in captivity - not learn search for natural food items, not learn antipredator behaviours, and their social behaviours often distorted and detrimental to survival
  • captive raised mammals and birds require extensive training before and after their release into the wild

e.g. captive-bred California condor hatchlings (Gymnogyps californianus) - unable to learn normal social bonds w/ other condors - had imprinted on human keepers - newly hatched condors are fed with condor puppets and kept from seeing human visitors so learn to identify with own species than foster species or human - H/E with training, when released in wild in protected areas, often congregated around buildings, causing damage and frightening people - break association, condors now captive-reared in enclosed outdoor areas w/o buildings

e.g. Salmon bred in captivity - fail to show behaviours needed to avoid predators - experience higher mortality than wild salmon - H/E reared in environment enriched with natural food and predators - showed less risk-taking behaviours + more likely to survive

30
Q

Issues:
high costs of ex-situ conservation

A
  • large mammals (e.g. elephants, rhinos), ex-situ conservation = 50x more expensive than in-situ conservation of same population size
  • more cost effective for smaller animals + plants
  • large animals in zoos generate revenue
31
Q

Cost and continuity

A
  • ex-situ programs = expensive - cost of maintaining large mammals (e.g. African elephants and black Rhinos) = 50x more cost of protecting same population in national parks
  • lack continuity in funding and subject to political instabilities and shifting priorities of funding agencies and organisations - high cost + instability = limit effectiveness of ex-situ facilities as single, L-T strategy for conservation
    • H/E smaller animals + plant species - less expensive - when habitat preservation and management is prohibitively expensive, ex-situ conservation = more effective than attempting to sustain wild population
32
Q

What is reintroductions?

A

re-establish population into original habitat/range where species no longer occurs

33
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

augmentation of an endangered population to increase its size and/or genetic diversity

34
Q

Success rates

A

low e.g. ~ 25% for fish in USA

can increase by ‘soft release’ - providing care during acclimatization and under harsh conditions
- and behavioural training and enrichment
- lots of case studies are published by IUCN

35
Q

How well do zoos target endangered animals?

A

approx 22,000 species in zoos and aquariums, represent 1.8% of global diversity - represent 4-25% of species of concern, depending on taxonomic group

threatened plants in botanical gardens - Botanical gardens hold representatives of 30% of all plant species and 59% of all genera

36
Q

What can zoo animal behaviour measure?

A

measure welfare

37
Q

Issue with measuring behaviour

A
  • what is normal behaviour?
  • what is ‘bored’ vs rest?
  • dangers of anthropomorphising
  • body language
38
Q

What is an ethogram used for?
Issues with ethogram?

A

compare captive to wild BUT:
- wild data not available for many species
- behaviour in wild can vary within and between populations
- not all differences indicate poor welfare in captivity (e.g. absence of anti-predator behaviour)

can compare different rearing conditions
can get an idea of behaviour based on ecology & natural history

39
Q

What is stereotyping?
And other negative behaviours?

A

repetitive behaviour with no goal
e.g. pacing, rocking gnawing/licking
self-mutation
aggression, infanticide & cannibalism

40
Q

What species are more prone to stereotyping?

A

animals with large home-range sizes are more prone to stereotyping and have high infant mortality rates

41
Q

Solution to stereotyping, aggression, infanticide & cannibalism

A

environmental enrichment:
- feeding
- sensory
- environmental

substantially reduces stereotyping
reduces aggression
promoted fitness
may lose novelty over time

42
Q

Training species benefits in zoos

A
  • for shows & education
  • for veterinary care
  • for husbandry (e.g. relocation)

can be enriching
educational value varies

43
Q

Impact of visitor and keeper behaviour on animal behaviour

A
  • feeding by visitors - induce excessive begging behaviour
  • imitation of calls / behaviours cause stress
  • many species don’t like eye contact

may find interaction enriching

44
Q

Solution to visitor and keeper impacts on animal behaviour

A
  • need to think about viewpoints into enclosures - screening & positioning
  • out of sight areas
  • keepers - consider how animals communication (e.g. using chimpanzee gestures increased positive behaviours)
45
Q

Conclusion - zoos in general

A

important role in education, research and conservation
BUT
must work to high standards & be highly regulated

some species better suited to captivity than others

enrichment & behavioural assessments used to improve welfare

ex-situ conservation effective and save species from extinction
best used in combination with in-situ conservation

46
Q

Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)

A
  • worldwide symbol of wildlife conservation for > half a century - finally paying off - no longer endangered, upgraded 2016 by IUCN from “endangered” to “vulnerable” - took decades w/ in situ and ex situ conservation efforts to save from extinction
  • live - high forests in mountains in central China - subsist on bamboo - problems began decades ago w/ agricultural expansion and deforestation of mountain habitat -> lead to substantial habitat loss for species - roads and human settlements fragmented few remaining habitats - difficult for pandas to migrate for search of bamboo
  • target of poaching - skin and furs - reclusive nature of animals made difficult to get accurate censuses - H/E estimate 1980s = fewer than 1000 pandas alive, 1988 = species = endangered by IUCN
  • population in wild rising - for 2 decades, up to 1864 animals during 2014 national census - success attributed to several factors:
    1. Chinese government = quick to protect habitat - logging ban (1988) = most remaining habitat off-limits to commercial logging; established 67 giant panda reserves for in situ conservation
    2. new policies - reduce poaching - 1983 - Chinese government, wildlife protection laws, increased protections for giant panda; 1984 - species in Appendix I of CITES - prohibited trade of species or its products internationally
    3. Chinese government - ex-situ population of giant pandas - including captive-breeding program
      - initial success rate (breeding program) = low
      - little known on reproductive biology of adults - limited number of successful matings
      - poor understanding of nutritional needs and care of newborn cubs led to high infant mortality
      - study of captive population biology and increased use of artificial insemination - improved success
      - TODAY - Wolong Giant Panda Center (in Sichuan Province, China) produces > 24 cubs a year, some released to wild
      - AND maintain live plants and animals, collect samples of sperm, eggs, seeds, or DNA from organisms + store them in gene or seed back to ensure species’ gametic and somatic tissues reserved - allows biomedical technologies to improve success of captive-breeding programs (e.g. artificial insemination) and provide opportunities for use of new technologies to help resurrect species from extinction (e.g. cloning)
  • Collections from wild that are maintained in artificial environments under human supervision can serve as S-T buffers against extinction and as material for captive-breeding programs that allow species and their genes to be reintroduced to the wild

This species = example where numerous elements from both in situ and ex situ conservation were used to save the species from extinction

47
Q

Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
Additional indirect benefits of ex situ facilities for in situ conservation efforts

A
  1. outreach and education activities at ex situ facilities can raise public awareness in ways that encourage in situ conservation
  2. some revenues generated at ex situ facilities are used to fund in situ conservation
  3. captive-bred individuals offer the opportunity for research, reintroductions, and reinforcements that can improve the success of in situ conservation efforts
  4. seed banks are used to restore native populations of plants

BIO234_Animal Conservation and Welfare (17 decks)

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