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Everything Flashcards

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1
Q

Basic Science:

A

• the pursuit of knowledge about natural phenomena for its own sake

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2
Q

Applied Science:

A

• discovering ways to use scientific findings to accomplish practical goals

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3
Q

The Scientific Method:

A
  • Question: a question about some natural phenomenon that arises
  • Hypothesis: an educated guess about some phenomenon; a researcher’s prediction of what the results of a study will be
  • Experiment: testing is done to prove or disprove the hypothesis
  • Results: Findings from experimentation
  • Conclusions: an explanation based on findings from the experiment
  • Theory: Once the experiment has been repeated several times and always has resulted in the same conclusion, that conclusion becomes a theory.
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4
Q

Structuralism (Wundt)

A
  • The study of consciousness
  • Focuses on the basic elements that make up conscious mental experiences
  • How thoughts and feelings are organized and related to each other
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5
Q

Functionalism (James)

A
  • How consciousness functions to help people

* Actions of the conscious mind and the goals or purposes of behaviors

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6
Q

Gestalt Psychology (Wertheimer)

A
  • Consciousness is best understood by observing whole experiences rather than breaking it into a cluster of components
  • “Whole is greater than sum of its parts”
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7
Q

Humanism (Maslow)

A
  • Focus on human ability, growth, potential and free will
  • Positive side of human nature
  • Human nature is evolving and self directed
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8
Q

Behaviorism (Skinner & Watson)

A
  • All behavior is learned from the environment (shaped by external factors)
  • Behavior is the result of conditioning (repeated rewards & punishment)
  • Emphasis on what can be observed and measured objectively—scientific and objective methods of investigation
  • Concerned with observable behavior, rather than internal thoughts and feelings
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9
Q

Socio-Cultural

A
  • Society determines behavior

* Cultural settings determine how one behaves

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10
Q

Sample vs. Population

A
  • Instead of experimenting on entire populations, samples are selected, whose results are used to make generalizations about the entire population.
  • Samples should be representative of the whole population. To ensure this two methods are used:
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11
Q

Random sample:

A

everyone has an equal chance of being selected

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12
Q

Stratified sample

A

individuals are handpicked to ensure that they represent various subgroups of the population such as age group, race, etc.

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13
Q

Qualitative:

A

limited number of participants; in-depth; ex. Case studies

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14
Q

Quantitative

A

large number of participants; lots of data; ex. Surveys

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15
Q

Case Study:

A

• research method that involves an intensive investigation of one or more participants

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16
Q

Longitudinal Study:

A

• research method in which data is collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development

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17
Q

Cross-sectional Study

A

data is collected from groups of participants of different ages and compared; conclusions show that differences are due to age

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18
Q

Naturalistic Observation:

A

• research method in which the psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without interference

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19
Q

Survey:

A

• interviews of questionnaires that gather data on a subject’s attitude or beliefs toward something

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20
Q

Experiments:

A

using the scientific method to test one’s hypothesis

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21
Q

Independent:

A

the variable the experimenter controls

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22
Q

Dependent:

A

♣ The variable that changes in relation to the independent variable

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23
Q

Control Group:

A

Participants not experimented upon

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24
Q

Experimental Group:

A

Participants experimented upon

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25
Q

Correlation:

A

Comparing how two factors are related

o Correlation indicates possibilities but does not mean causation

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26
Q

Positive Correlation:

A

As x increases, y increases

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27
Q

Negative Correlation:

A

o As x increases, y decreases

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28
Q

No Correlation:

A

o No relationship between x and y

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29
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecy:

A

• when the experimenter has expectations about a behavior and unconsciously acts in a way that carries out that behavior.

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30
Q

Single-blinded experiment:

A

• Participants are unaware of who received the treatment

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31
Q

Double-blinded experiments:

A

• Both the participants and the experimenter are unaware of who received the treatment.

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32
Q

Placebo Effect:

A

• a change in a participant’s illness or behavior that is caused by the belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather being caused by the actual treatment itself.

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33
Q

Ethical issues:

A

• issues that arise when experiments break ethical codes of conduct for proper and responsible behavior

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34
Q

Descriptive Statistics:

A

o Listing and summarizing data in a practical, efficient way

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35
Q

Distributions of Data

A

♣ Researchers organize their data in tables and graphs in order to create a rough picture of their data

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36
Q

Frequency Distribution:

A

♣ the listing and summarizing of data in a practical, efficient way.

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37
Q

Mean

A
  • The average
  • Add all values, divide by number of values
  • Normal distribution curve or bell-shaped curve (mean at the center, 34.14%, then 13.59%, then 2.15%)
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38
Q

Mode

A

• The number that occurs the most

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39
Q

Median

A

• The middle value

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40
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

♣ Statistical measure that shows the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables
♣ Coefficient will always fall between -1.0 and 1.0

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41
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

o Numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance.

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42
Q

Statistical Significance:

A

o when a researcher concludes that their findings are statistically significant, they are stating, at a high level of confidence that their results are not due to chance.

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43
Q

Developmental Psychology

A

• The study of changes that occur as an individual matures

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44
Q

Grasping reflex:

A

• an infant’s clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand

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45
Q

Rooting reflex:

A

• when newborns are touched anywhere near the mouth they will move their head and mouth towards the source of the touch.

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46
Q

Maturation

A
  • Biological growth process
  • An infant’s motor development (rolling over -> crawling -> walking)
  • Uninfluenced by experience
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47
Q

Language Acquisition

A
  • Imitate speech of family members and learn native language

* Language is a learned behavior

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48
Q

Telegraphic Speech:

A

• verbal utterances in which words are left out but meaning is clear

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49
Q

Cognitive Development

A

The construction of thought processes such as thinking, recalling and analyzing

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50
Q

Schemas:

A

• a conceptual framework a person uses to make sense of the world; mental representations of the world

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51
Q

Assimilation:

A

o the process of fitting objects and experiences into one’s schemas

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52
Q

Accommodation:

A

o the process of adjusting one’s schemas to include newly observed events and experiences

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53
Q

Object Permanence:

A

• things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or touched

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54
Q

Representational Thought:

A

• the intellectual ability of a child to picture something in his/her thoughts

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55
Q

The Principle of Conservation:

A

• a given quantity does not change even when its appearance is changed (think of putting the same quantity of water in different containers)

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56
Q

Stages of Cognitive Development (Piaget):

A

Sensorimotor Stage
Pre-operational Stage
Concrete Operations
Formal Operations Stage

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57
Q

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2)

A

♣ Experience the world through senses (looking, touching, hearing)
♣ Develop object permanence around 9 months

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58
Q

Pre-operational Stage (2-7)

A

♣ Child begins to use mental images or symbols to understand things
♣ Ego-centric view of the world –cannot understand things from others’ perspective
♣ Language acquisition

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59
Q

Concrete Operations (7-11)

A

♣ Children can think logically but understanding is limited to concrete objects and ideas
♣ No longer egocentric

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60
Q

Formal Operations Stage (11-onward)

A

♣ Able to solve abstract problems and think about abstract issues
♣ Capable of logic and deductive reasoning

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61
Q

Socialization:

A

• the process of learning the rules of behavior of the culture within which an individual is born and will live; learning how to live with others and with self

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62
Q

Stages of Psychosocial Development (Erikson)

A 
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generatively vs. Stagnation
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
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63
Q

Questions Related to Stages of Psychosocial Development

A

o Trust vs. mistrust (Early Infancy)
♣ Is my world predictable and supportive?
o Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3)
♣ Can I do things myself or must I rely on others?
o Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)
♣ Am I good or bad?
o Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12)
♣ Am I successful or worthless?
o Identity vs. Role Confusion (Early Teens)
♣ Who am I?
o Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adult)
♣ Should I share my life with someone?
o Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adult)
♣ Will I succeed in life?
o Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Older Adult)
♣ Have I lived a full life?

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64
Q

Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg)

A

o Pre-conventional
♣ Main concern is to avoid punishment (ego-centric)
♣ Evaluate acts in terms of consequences, not right & wrong
o Conventional
♣ Focus on what others will think
♣ Follow the rules; obey the law
o Post-conventional
♣ Concerned with what’s fair and just (is the law fair?)
♣ Acceptance of ethical principles that apply to everyone (follow the golden rule)

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65
Q

Parenting Styles:

A 
•	Authoritarian
o	Children have no right to question parental decisions
o	Parent’s word is law
•	Authoritative/ Democratic
o	Children participate in the decision making but parents still have the final say
•	Permissive
o	Children have the final say
o	Parents give in to child’s demands
•	Uninvolved
o	Uncommitted to their roles as parents
o	Distant from their children
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66
Q

Initiation rites

A

• Ceremonies or rituals in which an individual is admitted to a new status

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67
Q

Physical Development

A

• Quantities of neurotransmitters change resulting in mood swings or seeking existing experiences

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68
Q

Sexual maturation:

A

o Girls: wider hips, bigger breast, period
o Boys: broad shoulders, muscles, deeper voice, larger genitals, ejaculation
o Menarche: a girl’s first menstrual period
o Spermarche: period during which males achieve first ejaculation
o Asynchrony: when growth or maturation of bodily parts is uneven
o Correlation between negative body image and low self-esteem/ depression

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69
Q

Sexual attitudes:

A

o Culture affects sexual attitudes (some cultures encourage it, some discourage it)
o Media & pop culture plays a role
o Fear of negative consequences such as unwanted pregnancies and STDs leads to safe sex or abstinence

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70
Q

Cognitive Development of Adolescents

A

• Develop adult-like thinking patterns; formal operations (Piaget)
o Comprehension of the hypothetical
o Ability to understand higher level thinking and abstract ideas

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71
Q

Rationalization:

A

• a process whereby an individual seeks to explain an often unpleasant emotion or behavior in a way that will preserve his or her self-esteem

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72
Q

Idealized thinking

A 
o	Imagine the ideal and hypothetical
o	Unrealistic about complexities of life
•	Problems that arise:
o	Finding fault with authority figures
o	Argumentativeness
o	Indecisiveness
o	Apparent hypocrisy
o	Self-consciousness
o	Invulnerability
73
Q

Moral Development (Kohlberg)

A

• Pre-Conventional
o Main concern is to avoid punishment (ego-centric)
o Evaluate acts in terms of consequences; not based on right & wrong
• Conventional
o Focus on what others think
o Follow the rules; obey the law
• Post-Conventional
o Concerned with what’s fair and just (is the law fair?)
o Acceptance of ethical principles that apply to everyone (follow the golden rule)

74
Q

Identity Crisis (Erikson)

A

o Building an identity is a task that is unique to adolescence
o Identity Crisis: a period of inner conflict during which adolescents worry intensely about who they are.
o Identity formation vs. Role Confusion
♣ Task is to become a unique individual with a valued sense of self in society
♣ “Who am I”

75
Q

Identity Crisis (Marcia)

A

o 4 types of Adolescents
♣ Identity Moratorium
• Considering issues but have not made commitment on matters; compromise between parents, society & abilities
♣ Identity Foreclosure
• Made a commitment based on suggestion of others
♣ Identity Confused
• Has not given any serious thought to making any decisions and has no clear sense of identity
♣ Identity Achievement
• Has considered many possibilities but have made a choice about their identity on their own terms

76
Q

Social Learning View (Bandura)

A

o Adolescents are constantly adjusting their behavior to match those around them
o Individuals develop by interacting with others

77
Q

Social Development

A
  • Teens spend a lot of time around friends; they define who they are based on their friends
  • Clique: a small, exclusive group of people within a larger group
  • Conformity: acting in accordance with some specified authority; typically the result of peer pressure.
78
Q

Anorexia Nervosa

Bulimia Nervosa:

A

a serious eating disorder characterized by a fear of gaining weight that results in prolonged self-starvation and dramatic weight loss
a serious eating disorder characterized by excessive eating followed by purging (vomiting, using laxatives, or rigorous dieting and exercise) to eliminate the calories taken in

79
Q

Sex vs. Gender

A

o Sex: biological status

o Gender: behaviors associated with a particular sex

80
Q

Gender identity

A

o The sex group to which an individual belongs biologically

81
Q

Gender role

A

o The set of behaviors society considers appropriate for each sex
o Gender roles vary from one society to another

82
Q

Gender stereotypes

A

o Oversimplified generalizations about how men or women should behave

83
Q

Androgynous Roles:

A

o A mixing of traditionally male and female characteristics

84
Q

Gender Differences (assumed):

A

o Men: confident, physically aggressive, assertive, dominant, excel in spatial and mathematical skills
o Women: submissive, loving, verbally aggressive, excel in communication

85
Q

Biological Perspective on Gender Differences

A

o Gender differences are a result of behavior that evolved from prehistoric men and women

86
Q

Psychoanalytical Perspective on Gender Differences

A

o Gender identity results when a child identifies more with one parent than the other
Boys identify with their fathers; girls identify with their mothers

87
Q

Social Learning Perspective on Gender Differences

A

o Children learn their gender roles by observing and imitating models such as their parents, friends, peers, and teachers

88
Q

Cognitive-Developmental Perspective on Gender Differences

A

o Children acquire gender identity by interacting with their environment and thinking about those experiences

89
Q

Gender Schema:

A

a mental representation of behavior that helps a child categorize and organize behaviors

90
Q

Marriage & Divorce

A

o 50% of new couples divorce for two reasons
♣ How they resolve conflict
♣ How often they share intimate and happy moments

91
Q

Sexual Changes

A

o Menopause: the biological event in which a woman’s production of sex hormones sharply declines (stops ovulating and menstruating)
o Men do not go through a biological change equivalent to menopause, but sperm production declines gradually over the years

92
Q

Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

A

♣ Fluid Intelligence: the ability to solve abstract relational problems and generate new hypotheses; decreases with age
♣ Crystallized intelligence: the ability to use accumulated knowledge and learning in appropriate situations; increases with age and experience

93
Q

Generativity vs. Stagnation

A

♣ Generativity: the desire in middle age to use one’s accumulated wisdom to guide future generations
♣ Stagnation: a discontinuation of development and a desire to recapture the past
♣ “What have I done with my life and what do I still wish to accomplish?”

94
Q

Decremental model of aging:

A

• the idea that progressive physical and mental decline are inevitable with age

95
Q

Ageism:

A

Prejudice or discrimination against the elderly

96
Q

Health Changes

A

o Physical strength and senses decline about 1% a year

o About 80% of the elderly have at least one chronic disease

97
Q

Changes in life situations

A

o Transitions such as retirement and widowhood are negative, reduce responsibility and increase isolation
o Depression is common in older adults

98
Q

Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease

A

o Dementia: decrease in mental abilities, which can be experienced by some people in old age
o Alzheimer’s Disease: a condition that destroys a person’s ability to think, remember, relate to others, and care for himself/herself.

99
Q

Thanatology

A

the study of dying and death

100
Q

5 Stages of Grief/Dying (Kubler-Ross)

A 
o	Denial
o	Anger
o	Bargaining
o	Depression
o	Acceptance
101
Q

Hospice:

A

a facility designed to care for the special needs of the dying

102
Q

Stress:

A
  • A person’s reaction to his/her inability to cope with a certain tense event or situation
  • Distress: stress from acute anxiety or pressure (negative stress)
  • Eustress: stress which results from motivation strivings and challenges
  • Not a result of how large the problem is, but whether we think we are capable of handling the problem
103
Q

Types of stressors:

A

o Catastrophic event- life-threatening experience or trauma
o Life Changes- Life circumstances that create demands to which people must adjust
o Chronic Stressors- Stressors that continue to exist over a long period of time (crime, illness, unemployment)
o Daily hassles- minor irritations, pressures, and everyday hassles. Not significant but they add up

104
Q

Conflict Situations:

A

• Approach-Approach
o The individual must choose between two attractive options
• Avoidance-Avoidance
o The individual must choose between two disagreeable options
• Approach-Avoidance
o The individual finds themselves faced with a situation that has both positive and negative consequences
• Double-Approach-Avoidance
o The individual must choose between 2 or more alternatives, each of which has both positive and negative aspects

105
Q

General Adaptation System

A

Alarm/Reaction Stage
Resistance Stage
Exhaustion Stage

106
Q

Alarm/Reaction Stage

A

♣ Body reacts to a stressor by mobilizing its fight-or-flight defenses
♣ Fight vs. Flight Response
• Body reacts with immediate arousal and tries to defend itself
Increased heart rate, blood pressure, shallow breathing, digestive system shuts down and blood reroutes to muscles

107
Q

Resistance Stage

A

♣ Person finds means to cope with the stressor

♣ Body tries to restore homeostasis and resist the stressor

108
Q

Exhaustion Stage

A

♣ Bodily resources are drained
♣ Person reaches breaking point
♣ Many experience delusions or hallucinations
♣ Excessive colds or flu, headaches, heart problems
• Psychosomatic symptoms: real, physical symptoms caused by stress such as headaches, muscle pains, stomachaches

109
Q

Cognitive Appraisal

A
  • The interpretation of an event that helps determine its stress impact
  • Assessing a situation
110
Q

Primary appraisal

A 
o	Our immediate evaluation of a situation (can I handle this?)
o	Reaction (positive, negative, irrelevant)
111
Q

Secondary appraisal

A

o When we evaluate the different options for coping (what can I do about this?)

112
Q

Factors Influencing Reactions to Stress

A

Personality
Emotional Expressiveness
Spirituality
Social Support

113
Q

Personality

A

o Type A: competitive, hard-driven, impatient, verbally aggressive—stresses out quickly
o Type B: easy going, relaxed—doesn’t get worked up or anxious

114
Q

Coping Strategies:

A
  • Cognitive: change thought pattern
  • Emotional: know you have a support system in place
  • Physical: changing physical responses, training & exercise
115
Q

Motivation

A

• Various psychological and physiological factors that cause us to act a certain way at a certain time

116
Q

Instinct Theory

A

o Humans are motivated by a variety of instincts

o Instinct: natural or innate tendencies that determine behavior

117
Q

Drive Reduction Theory

A

o Physiological needs drive an organism to act
o All human motives are an extension of our physiological needs
o Drive: an internal condition that can change over time and orients an individual toward a goal (hunger drives us to eat)
o Organisms strive to maintain homeostasis

118
Q

Incentive & Cognitive Theory

A

o Stresses the role of the environment in determining behavior
o Incentive: external stimulus, reinforce, or reward that motivates behavior
o People are motivated to obtain positive incentives and avoid negative ones
o Extrinsic Motivation: engaging in activity that reduces biological needs or helps us obtain external rewards
o Intrinsic Motivation: engaging in activity because it is personally rewarding

119
Q

Optimum Arousal Theory

A

o Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal, but to seek optimum levels of arousal
o We try to increase arousal when it’s too low, and decrease it when it’s too high

120
Q

Homeostasis:

A

• tendency for an organism to correct imbalances & deviations from their normal state
• Our bodies need food to grow, repair themselves and store reserves
Stomach contractions send signals to the brain to make us aware of hunger

121
Q

Lateral Hypothalamus:

A

the part of the brain that produces hunger signals; makes an organism want to eat

122
Q

Ventromedial Hypothalamus:

A

• the part of the brain that causes an organism to stop eating

123
Q

Psychosocial Hunger Factors

A
  • Availability of food- eat because you are triggered by the presence of food
  • Quantity- people eat what’s in front of them
  • Palatability- the better the food tastes, the more people will want to eat it
  • Eating by the clock- eat because it’s time to eat
  • Presence of others- eat more in the presence of company
124
Q

Thematic Accerception Test (TMT):

A

o a tool used to measure achievement motivation

125
Q

Situational Determinants:

A

o situational factors that influence achievement strivings

126
Q

Achievement Motivation:

A

♣ A stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and attaining a level of excellence
♣ Those with low motivation achievement are primarily concerned with avoiding failure (choose very easy tasks or very difficult tasks)
♣ Those with high motivation achievement choose challenging tasks that can be completed successfully

127
Q

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

A

♣ Fundamental Needs: Physiological needs and safety needs
♣ Psychological Needs: Love & Belonging, Esteem (achieve and gain approval)
♣ Self-Actualization Needs: Fulfill one’s full potential

128
Q

Sex Phases

A

o Excitement Phase
♣ Level of physical arousal rises rapidly
♣ Vasocongenstion: engorgement of blood vessels, penis enlargens, vagina walls expand
o Plateau Phase
♣ Excitement peaks
♣ Rapid breathing, blood pressure increases
o Orgasm Phase
♣ Sexual arousal reaches peak intensity
♣ Rapid breathing, increased pulse and blood pressure
♣ Women are multiorgasmic
o Resolution Phase
♣ Engorged genitals release blood
♣ Male goes through refractory period (largely unresponsive to further stimulation)

129
Q

Sexual Orientation

A

o A person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationship
♣ Heterosexual- individuals of the opposite sex
♣ Homosexual- individuals of the same sex
♣ Bisexual- individuals of both sexes

130
Q

James-Lange Theory

A

♣ Physiological activity precedes emotional experience (I’m afraid because I’m trembling)

131
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A

♣ Emotion triggering stimulus & body’s arousal take place at the same time
♣ Thalamus produces physical arousal and emotional experience simultaneously; sends messages through brain and body

132
Q

Two Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer)

A

♣ Perception and arousal interact to create emotions

♣ People respond to both their physiology and cognition to create emotion

133
Q

Cognitive Appraisal Theory (Lazarus)

A

♣ A person’s cognitive appraisal (interpretation of a situation) is the most important aspect in determining their emotions
♣ No physiological arousal necessary; cognitive interpretation is enough

134
Q

Social Psychology

A

o Looks at how people’s thoughts, feelings, perceptions, motives and behaviors are influenced by other people

135
Q

Social Cognition

A

o mental processes associated with how we receive and react to others

136
Q

Social Context

A

o Activities and interactions that take place among people

o Settings in which behavior occurs

137
Q

Situational (External) Attribution:

A

o Environment influences how people behave

138
Q

Dispositional (Internal) Attribution:

A

o Internal factors (traits, character) influence our behavior

139
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error

A

♣ Tendency to over attribute behavior of others to internal factors such as personality
♣ Failing to consider that someone’s behavior might be a result of their situation

140
Q

Self-serving Bias

A

♣ We judge ourselves by a double standard
♣ Success is because of me (internal factors such as intelligence)
♣ Failure is someone else’s fault (situational factors such as a biased test)

141
Q

Proximity

A

People are attracted to those they live near

142
Q

Mere- Exposure Effect

A

♣ The more you see someone, the more you like them

143
Q

Similarity

A

♣ People are attracted to someone with whom they share similar attitudes, interests or values

144
Q

Physical Attractiveness

A

♣ Important in the initial stages of a relationship

♣ People tend to date or marry those who are similar in physical attractiveness (Matching Hypothesis)

145
Q

Reward Theory of Attraction

A

♣ We like those who give us maximum rewards at minimum costs

146
Q

Expectancy Value Theory

A

♣ People decide to pursue a relationship by weighing the value of the relationship against the possibility of the relationship failing

147
Q

Attitudes

A

o Beliefs or feelings that predispose our reactions to objects, people and events

148
Q

Central Route Persuasion

A

♣ Attitudes change when people are convinced by the speaker’s reasoning and evidence

149
Q

Peripheral Route Persuasion

A

♣ Attitudes change when people are convinced because the speaker is well-known, attractive, etc
♣ Not based on what the speaker actually says

150
Q

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon Festinger)

A

♣ When people become aware of the inconsistencies between attitude and behavior, they are motivated to make the inconsistencies consistent
♣ Either you change your attitude about something, or you change your actions/behavior
♣ Ex: A smoker knows smoking is bad. They can either stop smoking (change behavior to reconcile it with their attitude) or say smoking is not that bad (change attitude about smoking to reconcile it with their behavior)

151
Q

Passionate Love

A

♣ Intense positive absorption in one another

♣ Occurs at the beginning of a relationship

152
Q

Compassionate Love

A

♣ Deep, affectionate, intimate attachment marked by mutual concern for welfare of one another

153
Q

Norms:

A

• Behavior that is considered appropriate or acceptable in a given situation

154
Q

Conformity

A

o Tendency for people to adapt their behavior to match the actions of everyone else

155
Q

Asch’s Line Experiment

A

o Factors
♣ Size of the majority
♣ Presence of an individual who goes against the majority
♣ Size of the discrepancy between correct answers and majority’s opinion (is it obviously wrong?)
♣ Personality

156
Q

Normative Social Influence:

A

♣ want to avoid rejection and gain social approval

157
Q

Informative Social Influence:

A

Group may provide valuable information, want to accept opinion of others

158
Q

Compliance

A

o Adjusting one’s behavior due to an explicit or implicit request
♣ Explicit: Buy that shirt (command)
♣ Implicit: That shirt looks nice on you (suggestion)

159
Q

Obedience

A 
o	Change in behavior in response to a command from an authority figure
o	Factors
♣	Prestige of authority figure
♣	Presence of others who obey or disobey
♣	Personality
160
Q

Social Dilemma

A

o Situation in which selfish behavior that benefits individuals in the short run may have negative effects on the group in the long run

161
Q

Social Facilitation

A

o Improved performance on a task in the presence of others

162
Q

Social Loafing

A

o People in group exert less effort that when working individually

163
Q

Deindividualization

A

o Loss of self-awareness and self-control when you’re in a large group of people
o Act less responsibly

164
Q

Groupthink

A

o Group’s desire to get along results in irrational-decision making

165
Q

Group Polarization

A

o Members in a like-minded group try to be more extreme in their beliefs and decisions in order to make their point unique from everyone else’s

166
Q

Prejudice

A

o Having negative thoughts and attitudes towards someone because of he/she belongs to a certain group (race, religion, political party etc)
o Components
♣ Beliefs
♣ Emotions
♣ Pre-disposition to act
o Causes
♣ Inequality
♣ Social divisions
♣ Thought patterns
♣ Scapegoating theory: finding someone to blame for all your problems
o Cognitive roots
♣ Categorizing people by stereotyping them
♣ Just World Phenomenon: Tendency to believe that the world is just—people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

167
Q

Discrimination

A

o A negative action taken towards someone because he/she belongs to a certain group

168
Q

Social Identities

A

o In group- people with whom you share identity
o Out group- those perceived as different from your group
o In group bias- favor one’s own group

169
Q

Conflict

A

• Perceived incompability with actions, goals or ideas

170
Q

Mirror Image Perception:

A

• we see others the same way they see us

171
Q

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

A

o Behave towards others in a way that justifies our beliefs about them
o If I think someone is nice, I will be nice to them

172
Q

Aggression

A

• Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
• Influences
o Genetic- linked to the Y-chromosome in men
o Neural- centers in brain such as limbic system and frontal lobe can cause aggression

173
Q

Causes of Aggression

A

o Frustration-aggressive principle: frustration leads to anger, anger leads to aggression
o Excitation Transfer: arousal from one situation may carry over to another separate situation
o Stress

174
Q

Altruism

A

• Unselfish regard for others

175
Q

Social Exchange Theory

A

o People help in order to reduce unpleasant feelings caused by another person’s distress
o Attempt to minimize the cost of helping
♣ Benefit outweighs cost, will help
♣ Cost outweighs benefit, will not help

176
Q

Reciprocity Norm:

A

♣ expectations is that we should return help, not harm, to those who have helped us

177
Q

o Social Responsibility

A

♣ Largely learned

♣ Help those in need and don’t expect anything in return

178
Q

Altruistic Influences

A

o Clarity for need of help- in dire need, people will help most of the time
o Presence of others
♣ Diffusion of Responsibility: when many people are present, the responsibility for helping spreads out amongst all present
♣ Bystander Effect: as number of people present increases, the likelihood that someone will help decreases
o Personality/ mood of helper
o Other environmental factors
♣ Being in a rush

AP Psych (9 decks)

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