Everything Flashcards
Basic Science:
• the pursuit of knowledge about natural phenomena for its own sake
Applied Science:
• discovering ways to use scientific findings to accomplish practical goals
The Scientific Method:
- Question: a question about some natural phenomenon that arises
- Hypothesis: an educated guess about some phenomenon; a researcher’s prediction of what the results of a study will be
- Experiment: testing is done to prove or disprove the hypothesis
- Results: Findings from experimentation
- Conclusions: an explanation based on findings from the experiment
- Theory: Once the experiment has been repeated several times and always has resulted in the same conclusion, that conclusion becomes a theory.
Structuralism (Wundt)
- The study of consciousness
- Focuses on the basic elements that make up conscious mental experiences
- How thoughts and feelings are organized and related to each other
Functionalism (James)
- How consciousness functions to help people
* Actions of the conscious mind and the goals or purposes of behaviors
Gestalt Psychology (Wertheimer)
- Consciousness is best understood by observing whole experiences rather than breaking it into a cluster of components
- “Whole is greater than sum of its parts”
Humanism (Maslow)
- Focus on human ability, growth, potential and free will
- Positive side of human nature
- Human nature is evolving and self directed
Behaviorism (Skinner & Watson)
- All behavior is learned from the environment (shaped by external factors)
- Behavior is the result of conditioning (repeated rewards & punishment)
- Emphasis on what can be observed and measured objectively—scientific and objective methods of investigation
- Concerned with observable behavior, rather than internal thoughts and feelings
Socio-Cultural
- Society determines behavior
* Cultural settings determine how one behaves
Sample vs. Population
- Instead of experimenting on entire populations, samples are selected, whose results are used to make generalizations about the entire population.
- Samples should be representative of the whole population. To ensure this two methods are used:
Random sample:
everyone has an equal chance of being selected
Stratified sample
individuals are handpicked to ensure that they represent various subgroups of the population such as age group, race, etc.
Qualitative:
limited number of participants; in-depth; ex. Case studies
Quantitative
large number of participants; lots of data; ex. Surveys
Case Study:
• research method that involves an intensive investigation of one or more participants
Longitudinal Study:
• research method in which data is collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development
Cross-sectional Study
data is collected from groups of participants of different ages and compared; conclusions show that differences are due to age
Naturalistic Observation:
• research method in which the psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without interference
Survey:
• interviews of questionnaires that gather data on a subject’s attitude or beliefs toward something
Experiments:
using the scientific method to test one’s hypothesis
Independent:
the variable the experimenter controls
Dependent:
♣ The variable that changes in relation to the independent variable
Control Group:
Participants not experimented upon
Experimental Group:
Participants experimented upon
Correlation:
Comparing how two factors are related
o Correlation indicates possibilities but does not mean causation
Positive Correlation:
As x increases, y increases
Negative Correlation:
o As x increases, y decreases
No Correlation:
o No relationship between x and y
Self-fulfilling prophecy:
• when the experimenter has expectations about a behavior and unconsciously acts in a way that carries out that behavior.
Single-blinded experiment:
• Participants are unaware of who received the treatment
Double-blinded experiments:
• Both the participants and the experimenter are unaware of who received the treatment.
Placebo Effect:
• a change in a participant’s illness or behavior that is caused by the belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather being caused by the actual treatment itself.
Ethical issues:
• issues that arise when experiments break ethical codes of conduct for proper and responsible behavior
Descriptive Statistics:
o Listing and summarizing data in a practical, efficient way
Distributions of Data
♣ Researchers organize their data in tables and graphs in order to create a rough picture of their data
Frequency Distribution:
♣ the listing and summarizing of data in a practical, efficient way.
Mean
- The average
- Add all values, divide by number of values
- Normal distribution curve or bell-shaped curve (mean at the center, 34.14%, then 13.59%, then 2.15%)
Mode
• The number that occurs the most
Median
• The middle value
Correlation Coefficient
♣ Statistical measure that shows the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables
♣ Coefficient will always fall between -1.0 and 1.0
Inferential Statistics
o Numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance.
Statistical Significance:
o when a researcher concludes that their findings are statistically significant, they are stating, at a high level of confidence that their results are not due to chance.
Developmental Psychology
• The study of changes that occur as an individual matures
Grasping reflex:
• an infant’s clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand
Rooting reflex:
• when newborns are touched anywhere near the mouth they will move their head and mouth towards the source of the touch.
Maturation
- Biological growth process
- An infant’s motor development (rolling over -> crawling -> walking)
- Uninfluenced by experience
Language Acquisition
- Imitate speech of family members and learn native language
* Language is a learned behavior
Telegraphic Speech:
• verbal utterances in which words are left out but meaning is clear
Cognitive Development
The construction of thought processes such as thinking, recalling and analyzing
Schemas:
• a conceptual framework a person uses to make sense of the world; mental representations of the world
Assimilation:
o the process of fitting objects and experiences into one’s schemas
Accommodation:
o the process of adjusting one’s schemas to include newly observed events and experiences
Object Permanence:
• things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or touched
Representational Thought:
• the intellectual ability of a child to picture something in his/her thoughts
The Principle of Conservation:
• a given quantity does not change even when its appearance is changed (think of putting the same quantity of water in different containers)
Stages of Cognitive Development (Piaget):
Sensorimotor Stage
Pre-operational Stage
Concrete Operations
Formal Operations Stage
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2)
♣ Experience the world through senses (looking, touching, hearing)
♣ Develop object permanence around 9 months
Pre-operational Stage (2-7)
♣ Child begins to use mental images or symbols to understand things
♣ Ego-centric view of the world –cannot understand things from others’ perspective
♣ Language acquisition
Concrete Operations (7-11)
♣ Children can think logically but understanding is limited to concrete objects and ideas
♣ No longer egocentric
Formal Operations Stage (11-onward)
♣ Able to solve abstract problems and think about abstract issues
♣ Capable of logic and deductive reasoning
Socialization:
• the process of learning the rules of behavior of the culture within which an individual is born and will live; learning how to live with others and with self
Stages of Psychosocial Development (Erikson)
Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generatively vs. Stagnation Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Questions Related to Stages of Psychosocial Development
o Trust vs. mistrust (Early Infancy)
♣ Is my world predictable and supportive?
o Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3)
♣ Can I do things myself or must I rely on others?
o Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)
♣ Am I good or bad?
o Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12)
♣ Am I successful or worthless?
o Identity vs. Role Confusion (Early Teens)
♣ Who am I?
o Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adult)
♣ Should I share my life with someone?
o Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adult)
♣ Will I succeed in life?
o Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Older Adult)
♣ Have I lived a full life?
Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
o Pre-conventional
♣ Main concern is to avoid punishment (ego-centric)
♣ Evaluate acts in terms of consequences, not right & wrong
o Conventional
♣ Focus on what others will think
♣ Follow the rules; obey the law
o Post-conventional
♣ Concerned with what’s fair and just (is the law fair?)
♣ Acceptance of ethical principles that apply to everyone (follow the golden rule)
Parenting Styles:
• Authoritarian o Children have no right to question parental decisions o Parent’s word is law • Authoritative/ Democratic o Children participate in the decision making but parents still have the final say • Permissive o Children have the final say o Parents give in to child’s demands • Uninvolved o Uncommitted to their roles as parents o Distant from their children
Initiation rites
• Ceremonies or rituals in which an individual is admitted to a new status
Physical Development
• Quantities of neurotransmitters change resulting in mood swings or seeking existing experiences
Sexual maturation:
o Girls: wider hips, bigger breast, period
o Boys: broad shoulders, muscles, deeper voice, larger genitals, ejaculation
o Menarche: a girl’s first menstrual period
o Spermarche: period during which males achieve first ejaculation
o Asynchrony: when growth or maturation of bodily parts is uneven
o Correlation between negative body image and low self-esteem/ depression
Sexual attitudes:
o Culture affects sexual attitudes (some cultures encourage it, some discourage it)
o Media & pop culture plays a role
o Fear of negative consequences such as unwanted pregnancies and STDs leads to safe sex or abstinence
Cognitive Development of Adolescents
• Develop adult-like thinking patterns; formal operations (Piaget)
o Comprehension of the hypothetical
o Ability to understand higher level thinking and abstract ideas
Rationalization:
• a process whereby an individual seeks to explain an often unpleasant emotion or behavior in a way that will preserve his or her self-esteem
Idealized thinking
o Imagine the ideal and hypothetical o Unrealistic about complexities of life • Problems that arise: o Finding fault with authority figures o Argumentativeness o Indecisiveness o Apparent hypocrisy o Self-consciousness o Invulnerability
Moral Development (Kohlberg)
• Pre-Conventional
o Main concern is to avoid punishment (ego-centric)
o Evaluate acts in terms of consequences; not based on right & wrong
• Conventional
o Focus on what others think
o Follow the rules; obey the law
• Post-Conventional
o Concerned with what’s fair and just (is the law fair?)
o Acceptance of ethical principles that apply to everyone (follow the golden rule)
Identity Crisis (Erikson)
o Building an identity is a task that is unique to adolescence
o Identity Crisis: a period of inner conflict during which adolescents worry intensely about who they are.
o Identity formation vs. Role Confusion
♣ Task is to become a unique individual with a valued sense of self in society
♣ “Who am I”
Identity Crisis (Marcia)
o 4 types of Adolescents
♣ Identity Moratorium
• Considering issues but have not made commitment on matters; compromise between parents, society & abilities
♣ Identity Foreclosure
• Made a commitment based on suggestion of others
♣ Identity Confused
• Has not given any serious thought to making any decisions and has no clear sense of identity
♣ Identity Achievement
• Has considered many possibilities but have made a choice about their identity on their own terms
Social Learning View (Bandura)
o Adolescents are constantly adjusting their behavior to match those around them
o Individuals develop by interacting with others
Social Development
- Teens spend a lot of time around friends; they define who they are based on their friends
- Clique: a small, exclusive group of people within a larger group
- Conformity: acting in accordance with some specified authority; typically the result of peer pressure.
Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia Nervosa:
a serious eating disorder characterized by a fear of gaining weight that results in prolonged self-starvation and dramatic weight loss
a serious eating disorder characterized by excessive eating followed by purging (vomiting, using laxatives, or rigorous dieting and exercise) to eliminate the calories taken in
Sex vs. Gender
o Sex: biological status
o Gender: behaviors associated with a particular sex
Gender identity
o The sex group to which an individual belongs biologically
Gender role
o The set of behaviors society considers appropriate for each sex
o Gender roles vary from one society to another
Gender stereotypes
o Oversimplified generalizations about how men or women should behave
Androgynous Roles:
o A mixing of traditionally male and female characteristics
Gender Differences (assumed):
o Men: confident, physically aggressive, assertive, dominant, excel in spatial and mathematical skills
o Women: submissive, loving, verbally aggressive, excel in communication
Biological Perspective on Gender Differences
o Gender differences are a result of behavior that evolved from prehistoric men and women
Psychoanalytical Perspective on Gender Differences
o Gender identity results when a child identifies more with one parent than the other
Boys identify with their fathers; girls identify with their mothers
Social Learning Perspective on Gender Differences
o Children learn their gender roles by observing and imitating models such as their parents, friends, peers, and teachers
Cognitive-Developmental Perspective on Gender Differences
o Children acquire gender identity by interacting with their environment and thinking about those experiences
Gender Schema:
a mental representation of behavior that helps a child categorize and organize behaviors
Marriage & Divorce
o 50% of new couples divorce for two reasons
♣ How they resolve conflict
♣ How often they share intimate and happy moments
Sexual Changes
o Menopause: the biological event in which a woman’s production of sex hormones sharply declines (stops ovulating and menstruating)
o Men do not go through a biological change equivalent to menopause, but sperm production declines gradually over the years
Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence
♣ Fluid Intelligence: the ability to solve abstract relational problems and generate new hypotheses; decreases with age
♣ Crystallized intelligence: the ability to use accumulated knowledge and learning in appropriate situations; increases with age and experience
Generativity vs. Stagnation
♣ Generativity: the desire in middle age to use one’s accumulated wisdom to guide future generations
♣ Stagnation: a discontinuation of development and a desire to recapture the past
♣ “What have I done with my life and what do I still wish to accomplish?”
Decremental model of aging:
• the idea that progressive physical and mental decline are inevitable with age
Ageism:
Prejudice or discrimination against the elderly
Health Changes
o Physical strength and senses decline about 1% a year
o About 80% of the elderly have at least one chronic disease
Changes in life situations
o Transitions such as retirement and widowhood are negative, reduce responsibility and increase isolation
o Depression is common in older adults
Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
o Dementia: decrease in mental abilities, which can be experienced by some people in old age
o Alzheimer’s Disease: a condition that destroys a person’s ability to think, remember, relate to others, and care for himself/herself.
Thanatology
the study of dying and death
5 Stages of Grief/Dying (Kubler-Ross)
o Denial o Anger o Bargaining o Depression o Acceptance
Hospice:
a facility designed to care for the special needs of the dying
Stress:
- A person’s reaction to his/her inability to cope with a certain tense event or situation
- Distress: stress from acute anxiety or pressure (negative stress)
- Eustress: stress which results from motivation strivings and challenges
- Not a result of how large the problem is, but whether we think we are capable of handling the problem
Types of stressors:
o Catastrophic event- life-threatening experience or trauma
o Life Changes- Life circumstances that create demands to which people must adjust
o Chronic Stressors- Stressors that continue to exist over a long period of time (crime, illness, unemployment)
o Daily hassles- minor irritations, pressures, and everyday hassles. Not significant but they add up
Conflict Situations:
• Approach-Approach
o The individual must choose between two attractive options
• Avoidance-Avoidance
o The individual must choose between two disagreeable options
• Approach-Avoidance
o The individual finds themselves faced with a situation that has both positive and negative consequences
• Double-Approach-Avoidance
o The individual must choose between 2 or more alternatives, each of which has both positive and negative aspects
General Adaptation System
Alarm/Reaction Stage
Resistance Stage
Exhaustion Stage
Alarm/Reaction Stage
♣ Body reacts to a stressor by mobilizing its fight-or-flight defenses
♣ Fight vs. Flight Response
• Body reacts with immediate arousal and tries to defend itself
Increased heart rate, blood pressure, shallow breathing, digestive system shuts down and blood reroutes to muscles
Resistance Stage
♣ Person finds means to cope with the stressor
♣ Body tries to restore homeostasis and resist the stressor
Exhaustion Stage
♣ Bodily resources are drained
♣ Person reaches breaking point
♣ Many experience delusions or hallucinations
♣ Excessive colds or flu, headaches, heart problems
• Psychosomatic symptoms: real, physical symptoms caused by stress such as headaches, muscle pains, stomachaches
Cognitive Appraisal
- The interpretation of an event that helps determine its stress impact
- Assessing a situation
Primary appraisal
o Our immediate evaluation of a situation (can I handle this?) o Reaction (positive, negative, irrelevant)
Secondary appraisal
o When we evaluate the different options for coping (what can I do about this?)
Factors Influencing Reactions to Stress
Personality
Emotional Expressiveness
Spirituality
Social Support
Personality
o Type A: competitive, hard-driven, impatient, verbally aggressive—stresses out quickly
o Type B: easy going, relaxed—doesn’t get worked up or anxious
Coping Strategies:
- Cognitive: change thought pattern
- Emotional: know you have a support system in place
- Physical: changing physical responses, training & exercise
Motivation
• Various psychological and physiological factors that cause us to act a certain way at a certain time
Instinct Theory
o Humans are motivated by a variety of instincts
o Instinct: natural or innate tendencies that determine behavior
Drive Reduction Theory
o Physiological needs drive an organism to act
o All human motives are an extension of our physiological needs
o Drive: an internal condition that can change over time and orients an individual toward a goal (hunger drives us to eat)
o Organisms strive to maintain homeostasis
Incentive & Cognitive Theory
o Stresses the role of the environment in determining behavior
o Incentive: external stimulus, reinforce, or reward that motivates behavior
o People are motivated to obtain positive incentives and avoid negative ones
o Extrinsic Motivation: engaging in activity that reduces biological needs or helps us obtain external rewards
o Intrinsic Motivation: engaging in activity because it is personally rewarding
Optimum Arousal Theory
o Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal, but to seek optimum levels of arousal
o We try to increase arousal when it’s too low, and decrease it when it’s too high
Homeostasis:
• tendency for an organism to correct imbalances & deviations from their normal state
• Our bodies need food to grow, repair themselves and store reserves
Stomach contractions send signals to the brain to make us aware of hunger
Lateral Hypothalamus:
the part of the brain that produces hunger signals; makes an organism want to eat
Ventromedial Hypothalamus:
• the part of the brain that causes an organism to stop eating
Psychosocial Hunger Factors
- Availability of food- eat because you are triggered by the presence of food
- Quantity- people eat what’s in front of them
- Palatability- the better the food tastes, the more people will want to eat it
- Eating by the clock- eat because it’s time to eat
- Presence of others- eat more in the presence of company
Thematic Accerception Test (TMT):
o a tool used to measure achievement motivation
Situational Determinants:
o situational factors that influence achievement strivings
Achievement Motivation:
♣ A stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and attaining a level of excellence
♣ Those with low motivation achievement are primarily concerned with avoiding failure (choose very easy tasks or very difficult tasks)
♣ Those with high motivation achievement choose challenging tasks that can be completed successfully
Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)
♣ Fundamental Needs: Physiological needs and safety needs
♣ Psychological Needs: Love & Belonging, Esteem (achieve and gain approval)
♣ Self-Actualization Needs: Fulfill one’s full potential
Sex Phases
o Excitement Phase
♣ Level of physical arousal rises rapidly
♣ Vasocongenstion: engorgement of blood vessels, penis enlargens, vagina walls expand
o Plateau Phase
♣ Excitement peaks
♣ Rapid breathing, blood pressure increases
o Orgasm Phase
♣ Sexual arousal reaches peak intensity
♣ Rapid breathing, increased pulse and blood pressure
♣ Women are multiorgasmic
o Resolution Phase
♣ Engorged genitals release blood
♣ Male goes through refractory period (largely unresponsive to further stimulation)
Sexual Orientation
o A person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationship
♣ Heterosexual- individuals of the opposite sex
♣ Homosexual- individuals of the same sex
♣ Bisexual- individuals of both sexes
James-Lange Theory
♣ Physiological activity precedes emotional experience (I’m afraid because I’m trembling)
Cannon-Bard Theory
♣ Emotion triggering stimulus & body’s arousal take place at the same time
♣ Thalamus produces physical arousal and emotional experience simultaneously; sends messages through brain and body
Two Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer)
♣ Perception and arousal interact to create emotions
♣ People respond to both their physiology and cognition to create emotion
Cognitive Appraisal Theory (Lazarus)
♣ A person’s cognitive appraisal (interpretation of a situation) is the most important aspect in determining their emotions
♣ No physiological arousal necessary; cognitive interpretation is enough
Social Psychology
o Looks at how people’s thoughts, feelings, perceptions, motives and behaviors are influenced by other people
Social Cognition
o mental processes associated with how we receive and react to others
Social Context
o Activities and interactions that take place among people
o Settings in which behavior occurs
Situational (External) Attribution:
o Environment influences how people behave
Dispositional (Internal) Attribution:
o Internal factors (traits, character) influence our behavior
Fundamental Attribution Error
♣ Tendency to over attribute behavior of others to internal factors such as personality
♣ Failing to consider that someone’s behavior might be a result of their situation
Self-serving Bias
♣ We judge ourselves by a double standard
♣ Success is because of me (internal factors such as intelligence)
♣ Failure is someone else’s fault (situational factors such as a biased test)
Proximity
People are attracted to those they live near
Mere- Exposure Effect
♣ The more you see someone, the more you like them
Similarity
♣ People are attracted to someone with whom they share similar attitudes, interests or values
Physical Attractiveness
♣ Important in the initial stages of a relationship
♣ People tend to date or marry those who are similar in physical attractiveness (Matching Hypothesis)
Reward Theory of Attraction
♣ We like those who give us maximum rewards at minimum costs
Expectancy Value Theory
♣ People decide to pursue a relationship by weighing the value of the relationship against the possibility of the relationship failing
Attitudes
o Beliefs or feelings that predispose our reactions to objects, people and events
Central Route Persuasion
♣ Attitudes change when people are convinced by the speaker’s reasoning and evidence
Peripheral Route Persuasion
♣ Attitudes change when people are convinced because the speaker is well-known, attractive, etc
♣ Not based on what the speaker actually says
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon Festinger)
♣ When people become aware of the inconsistencies between attitude and behavior, they are motivated to make the inconsistencies consistent
♣ Either you change your attitude about something, or you change your actions/behavior
♣ Ex: A smoker knows smoking is bad. They can either stop smoking (change behavior to reconcile it with their attitude) or say smoking is not that bad (change attitude about smoking to reconcile it with their behavior)
Passionate Love
♣ Intense positive absorption in one another
♣ Occurs at the beginning of a relationship
Compassionate Love
♣ Deep, affectionate, intimate attachment marked by mutual concern for welfare of one another
Norms:
• Behavior that is considered appropriate or acceptable in a given situation
Conformity
o Tendency for people to adapt their behavior to match the actions of everyone else
Asch’s Line Experiment
o Factors
♣ Size of the majority
♣ Presence of an individual who goes against the majority
♣ Size of the discrepancy between correct answers and majority’s opinion (is it obviously wrong?)
♣ Personality
Normative Social Influence:
♣ want to avoid rejection and gain social approval
Informative Social Influence:
Group may provide valuable information, want to accept opinion of others
Compliance
o Adjusting one’s behavior due to an explicit or implicit request
♣ Explicit: Buy that shirt (command)
♣ Implicit: That shirt looks nice on you (suggestion)
Obedience
o Change in behavior in response to a command from an authority figure o Factors ♣ Prestige of authority figure ♣ Presence of others who obey or disobey ♣ Personality
Social Dilemma
o Situation in which selfish behavior that benefits individuals in the short run may have negative effects on the group in the long run
Social Facilitation
o Improved performance on a task in the presence of others
Social Loafing
o People in group exert less effort that when working individually
Deindividualization
o Loss of self-awareness and self-control when you’re in a large group of people
o Act less responsibly
Groupthink
o Group’s desire to get along results in irrational-decision making
Group Polarization
o Members in a like-minded group try to be more extreme in their beliefs and decisions in order to make their point unique from everyone else’s
Prejudice
o Having negative thoughts and attitudes towards someone because of he/she belongs to a certain group (race, religion, political party etc)
o Components
♣ Beliefs
♣ Emotions
♣ Pre-disposition to act
o Causes
♣ Inequality
♣ Social divisions
♣ Thought patterns
♣ Scapegoating theory: finding someone to blame for all your problems
o Cognitive roots
♣ Categorizing people by stereotyping them
♣ Just World Phenomenon: Tendency to believe that the world is just—people get what they deserve and deserve what they get
Discrimination
o A negative action taken towards someone because he/she belongs to a certain group
Social Identities
o In group- people with whom you share identity
o Out group- those perceived as different from your group
o In group bias- favor one’s own group
Conflict
• Perceived incompability with actions, goals or ideas
Mirror Image Perception:
• we see others the same way they see us
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
o Behave towards others in a way that justifies our beliefs about them
o If I think someone is nice, I will be nice to them
Aggression
• Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
• Influences
o Genetic- linked to the Y-chromosome in men
o Neural- centers in brain such as limbic system and frontal lobe can cause aggression
Causes of Aggression
o Frustration-aggressive principle: frustration leads to anger, anger leads to aggression
o Excitation Transfer: arousal from one situation may carry over to another separate situation
o Stress
Altruism
• Unselfish regard for others
Social Exchange Theory
o People help in order to reduce unpleasant feelings caused by another person’s distress
o Attempt to minimize the cost of helping
♣ Benefit outweighs cost, will help
♣ Cost outweighs benefit, will not help
Reciprocity Norm:
♣ expectations is that we should return help, not harm, to those who have helped us
o Social Responsibility
♣ Largely learned
♣ Help those in need and don’t expect anything in return
Altruistic Influences
o Clarity for need of help- in dire need, people will help most of the time
o Presence of others
♣ Diffusion of Responsibility: when many people are present, the responsibility for helping spreads out amongst all present
♣ Bystander Effect: as number of people present increases, the likelihood that someone will help decreases
o Personality/ mood of helper
o Other environmental factors
♣ Being in a rush
