Ethics - Normative ethics Flashcards
1
Q
What is Teleological, or consequentialist, thinking?
A
.The word ‘teleological’ comes from the Greek meaning ‘end’ or ‘purpose’
.Teleological thinking considers the consequences of a particular action or the ‘end’ result
2
Q
What is deontological thinking?
A
.The word ‘deontological’ comes from the Greek word deon, which means ‘duty’
.Deontological (duty-based) ethics are concerned with what people do, not with the consequences of their actions
3
Q
How can natural law be understood?
A
Natural law can be understood as both a deontological and teleological ethical theory. It is concerned with clear precepts (laws) but it is also clear that by fulfilling these laws we will reach our telos (goal) which is Eudaimonia (happiness).
4
Q
What does Aristotle think the teleological goal for a man was?
A
Aristotle thought the teleological goal for a man was to live a life of a certain kind, that is, to be a reasoning creature and to use reason to recognize how to behave morally.
5
Q
What did Aristotle believe separated humans from animals and plants?
A
It is reason that separates human beings from other living creatures like animals and plants.
6
Q
When did Aristotle believe there telos is fulfilled?
A
It is when human beings act morally that their ‘telos’ is fulfilled.
7
Q
Overall, Aristotle saw the ‘telos’ of human life as what?
A
(happiness)
8
Q
Define eduaimonia
A
‘human flourishing’; a contented state of being happy and healthy and prosperous
9
Q
What does Aristotle believe about souls, essentially?
A
Human = Rational Animal = Sensitive Plant = Nutritive
10
Q
Natural law originated from where?
A
Aristotle’s theory of the four causes
11
Q
What is natural law based on?
A
the worldview that the universe has a ‘telos’ / purpose
12
Q
What does natural law believe humans have a natural inclination to follow?
A
certain laws that lead towards this telos/purpose
13
Q
Aristotle thought the teleological goal (telos) for man was what? Which is?
A
Eudaimonia (happiness)
This happiness was not pleasure but living well and being fulfilled based on our reason (intellect)
14
Q
.Our reason (intellect) separates us from other creatures as _ ___ _____ ________. Therefore, making reasoned moral decisions would lead to ______
A
We make moral decisions
Eudaimonia
15
Q
The Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas developed Aristotle’s theory into his what?
A
Natural Law theory
16
Q
Aquinas believed that there were 4 forms of law that enables us to reach this perfection:
A
- Eternal – God’s laws that govern the universe
- Divine – laws determined through the Bible and Jesus
- Natural – laws we can arrive at by applying our reason (intellect)
- Human – laws of the nation developed through the above
17
Q
Which of Aquinas’ laws are available to humans?
A
Laws 2, 3, and 4 are available to human beings
18
Q
Aquinas believed the most important inclination is what? what does this mean?
A
‘synderisis’ which means ‘do good and avoid evil’
19
Q
Human reason is what?
A
the human being’s capacity to reach conclusions and make judgements based on logic, knowledge and morality
20
Q
What is the difference between real goods and apparent goods?
A
Real goods are things we achieve by following the precepts and natural law, apparent goods are things humans pursue that they think are good but are not real goods
21
Q
Primary precepts and secondary precepts are what?
A
Primary precepts are precepts identified by Aquinas that lead us to the main human purpose, secondary precepts are rules deduced through reason – some can be found in the Bible.
22
Q
What are the primary precepts?
A
W = worship God O = Orderly society R = Reproduce to continue species L = Learn through education D = Defend innocent life
23
Q
Aquinas’ examples of actions which contradict the primary precepts –
A
.Theft .Lying .Fornicating .Committing adultery .Killing the innocent
24
Q
Rules in the Bible which Aquinas considers secondary precepts –
A
Orderly society = ‘do not murder’, ‘do not steal’, ‘do not commit adultery’
Defend innocent life = ‘do not kill’
Worship God = ‘no other God’s but me’ or ‘love God and love your neighbour’
Reproduce = ‘Go forth and multiply’ or ‘do not abort a child’
25
What is a real good?
an action that leads to a feeling of happiness eudemonia
26
What is an apparent good?
an action that leads us to immediate pleasure (can be selfish)
27
What are primary precepts?
laws/principles that regulate human behaviour, Aquinas believes the primary precepts apply to all humans with no exception
28
What are secondary precepts?
laws/rules that we follow to adhere to the ‘primary precepts’, Aquinas believes these are based on divine, natural and human laws
29
How can you follow the primary precepts?
Live in harmony in society 1. Follow laws
2. Follow the primary precepts
3. Equal society
Worship God 1. Attend church every week
2. Pray
Reproduce 1. When you are married, you should make it your mission to have children
2. Take good care of the children you have
Education 1. Go to school
2. Have access to libraries and use them
Preserve Life 1. Do not murder
2. Not use the death penalty
dont need all just a few examples
30
What is double effect?
When an action will have two consequences (a ‘double effect’), the morality of that action depends on which of the effects was intended.
31
Classical formulations of the principle of double effect require that four conditions be met if the action is to be morally permissible, what are these in old terms and understood?
1. That we do not wish the evil effects and make all reasonable efforts to avoid them
We must have a good intention and do our best not to do evil – ‘Syndersis’ – do good and avoid evil
2. That the immediate effect be good in itself
The first or initial act must be good
3. That the evil is not a means to obtain the good effect
You cannot do a bad or evil action to achieve a good outcome
4. That the good effect be as important (proportionate) at least as the evil effect
The good effect and the bad effect of an action must be at least balanced/equal
32
Finish the quote
| ’The universe exists for itself, without cause or purpose. Nothing ...
... existed before it that could have been its cause. Nothing exists outside it that could be the source of its purpose.’
33
Can the doctrine of double effect be used to justify an action, such as killing someone, as an act of self-defence? Yes, Thomas Aquinas argument
Thomas Aquinas argues (using the principle of double effect) that an act such as killing someone in self-defence is acceptable: 'Therefore, this act, since one's intention is to save one's life, is not unlawful, seeing that it is natural to everything to keep itself being...'
34
Can the doctrine of double effect be used to justify an action, such as killing someone, as an act of self-defence? Yes, 4th condition
The doctrine of double effect also provides a guide, the 4th condition about proportionality means that taking a life in self-defence is acceptable unless a person uses more than necessary violence. 'if a man in self-defence uses more than necessary violence, it will be unlawful, whereas, it he repels force with moderation, his defence will be lawful.'
35
Can the doctrine of double effect be used to justify an action, such as killing someone, as an act of self-defence? Yes, Joseph Mangan
Philosopher Joseph Mangan agrees with Aquinas' view of proportionality. Killing in self defence is acceptable if there is a grave enough reason for permitting the evil effect. For example, if a person broke into your house with a gun and began firing bullets toward you and your family members then this would seemingly be a grave enough reason.
36
Can the doctrine of double effect be used to justify an action, such as killing someone, as an act of self-defence? Yes, Aquinas not a mortal sin
Aquinas argues that the principle of double effect can be used in this circumstance and it would not be a mortal sin. 'It is not necessary for salvation that a man omit the act of moderate self-defence in order to avoid killing the other man, since one is bound to take more care of one's own life than of another's.'
37
Can the doctrine of double effect be used to justify an action, such as killing someone, as an act of self-defence? No, Augustine
St Augustine maintained that killing in self-defence was not permissible unless the person was a soldier or in public office. Augustine is saying that there is a danger in a rule like double effect because it may justify any action that we personally deem to necessary.
38
Can the doctrine of double effect be used to justify an action, such as killing someone, as an act of self-defence? No, responsibility
We are responsible for all the anticipated consequences of our actions. If we can foresee the two effects of our action we have to take the moral responsibility for both effects - we can't get out of trouble by deciding to intend only the effect that suits us.
39
Can the doctrine of double effect be used to justify an action, such as killing someone, as an act of self-defence? No, intention irrelevant
The intention is irrelevant. Some people take the view that its sloppy morality to decide the rightness or wrongness of an act by looking at the intention. Immanuel Kant argues that some acts are objectively right or wrong, and that the intention of the person who does them is irrelevant
40
Can the doctrine of double effect be used to justify an action, such as killing someone, as an act of self-defence? No, Pope Nicholas I
The 9th Century Pope, Pope Nicholas I said that 'no man may lawfully take another's life in self defence in order to save his own life'. This would be classed as a mortal sin, the principle of double effect should not be used as justification for ending a person's life.
41
Is the universe as a whole designed with a telos? Does human nature have an orientation towards the good? Yes, it appears logical
The idea of cause, effect and purpose seems a logical argument. This is because we experience the concept of cause and effect in the world. Thomas Aquinas said we can, from experience, trace out own cause. He also rejects the concept of infinite regress which means that the world must also have a cause.
42
Is the universe as a whole designed with a telos? Does human nature have an orientation towards the good? Yes, humans agree we have a purpose
Many argue that everything that is caused has a purpose. For example, the work of Aristotle and the four causes clearly shows that non-living things have a purpose. We can also apply purpose to living things too e.g. plants and animals provide sustenance in the natural cycle. If we accept that these living things have a purpose then can we not accept that humans also have a purpose?
43
Is the universe as a whole designed with a telos? Does human nature have an orientation towards the good? Yes, our purpose is eudaimonia
Human nature does tend to agree that happiness (eudaimonia) is the desired end for humans. The fact that we act morally and try to achieve happiness through virtuous acts gives evidence that humans try to fulfil their purpose in life in how they act to other people.
44
Is the universe as a whole designed with a telos? Does human nature have an orientation towards the good? Yes, natural law
Humans do tend to agree that there is some form of natural law. Things that we would all consider to be good, bad, right, and wrong. There seems to be a universal recognition of morality. Every sane and rational person would recognise and agree that certain things are good and others bad.
45
Is the universe as a whole designed with a telos? Does human nature have an orientation towards the good? No, evolution and natural selection
The overwhelming evidence for evolution and natural selection provides clear evidence that morality and human life has no other purpose than surival. Humans will do all they can to continue their existence and morality is something that has developed in order to prolong our existence e.g. we act morally as we live in groups as we survive better with the support of others
46
Is the universe as a whole designed with a telos? Does human nature have an orientation towards the good? No, Hume and Russell
The universe is a brute fact, there is no supreme being behind it, it does not have a purpose and our existence is purely a chance event.
47
Is the universe as a whole designed with a telos? Does human nature have an orientation towards the good? No, coincidence
'The universe exists for itself, without cause of purpose. Nothing existed before it that could have been its cause. Nothing exists outside it that could be the source of its purpose.'
If we accept this quote then we can also accept that cause is something that humans apply to certain events when in fact they could simply be coincidence
48
Is the universe as a whole designed with a telos? Does human nature have an orientation towards the good? No, do human beings have a telos?
Is there really a final cause (telos) for everything or are we just looking for something that is not there? Are humans desperately hoping to find a purpose when in fact we should just accept that we are born, we live and we die?
49
Is the universe as a whole designed with a telos? Does human nature have an orientation towards the good? No, Humans don't always do good and avoid evil
If natural law is universal and based on an unchanging moral law then why have we made so many mistakes through the centuries? For example, slavery and apartheid were considered right by reason of natural law and we now look upon these acts as completely immoral
50
Natural Law, For, Double effect
Flexibility
.Offers flexibility to ethical theory
.Allows us to apply reasons to situations (e.g. killing in self-defence)
.Provides a clear guide on how to apply double effect
51
Natural Law, For, Precepts
Provide Structure
.Primary and secondary precepts provide clear principle and laws
.Avoids emotion and focuses on reason
.God given ability of what is right and wrong
52
Natural Law, For, Synderisis
Logical and Basic principle
.Basic and straightforward principle – do good/avoid evil
.Universal recognition (e.g. murder is evil)
.Sane and rational approach – we all want eudemonia
53
Natural Law, No, Kai Nielson
Kai Nielson – no fixed human nature –
.Human nature appears to change
.What is considered natural
.Homosexuality – huge changes in attitudes in the last 20 years
54
Natural Law, No, Karl Barth
Karl Barth – Humans are corrupt –
.Relies too much on human nature
.Like Augustine, thinks humans are too corrupted
.Human nature is a problematic form of ethics
55
Natural Law, No, G.E. Moore
```
G.E. Moore – Naturalistic Fallacy –
.A fallacy is faulty reasoning
.Natural Law is too simplistic
.Goodness cannot be defined
.We don’t agree on what is good and evil
```
56
Who proposed situation ethics?
Situation Ethics as a principle of morality was proposed by the American moral theologian, Joseph Fletcher
57
How did Fletcher propose situation ethics?
.He published a book called ‘Situation Ethics: A New Morality’ in 1966, in which he outlined an approach to Christian ethics based on agape (unconditional love)
58
Why was Joseph Fletcher presenting a new-form of ethics?
Joseph Fletcher was presenting a new-form of ethics as the 1960’s showed a massive rise in counterculture. This included progression in human sexuality, women’s rights, civil rights and more.
59
Who inspired Fletcher?
Fletcher was inspired by Jesus’ gospel message of love and he appealed to the Biblical scholar Rudolf Bultmann, according to whom Jesus taught no ethics other than ‘love thy neighbour’
60
Who was Bultmann?
Bultmann was liberal Christian and focused on portraying the historical Jesus
61
What led Bultmann and ultimately Fletcher to focus on Jesus’ teaching on love rather than worrying about proving whether or no Jesus was divine?
The focus on portraying the historical Jesus
62
Within ethical studies, there are 3 main approaches, what are they?
1. Legalism – sets of rules and regulations
2. Antinomianism – comes from the Greek, means ‘lawless’
3. Situationism – in order to make a meaningful ethical decision, the entire situation needs to be considered
63
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? Yes, practical reason
.Aquinas and Aristotle argue it uses practical reason and is a common-sense approach
.This means it is available to all human beings
.The reason used is God given and should be used
64
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? Yes, objective
.Objective, and so independent of our own thoughts and desires
.This means decisions will not be swayed by emotion
.It is a theory based off of the use of reason
.Aquinas believes God has given us the ability to reason to support decision making
65
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? Yes, flexible
.Aquinas’ use of secondary precepts mean that Natural Law ethics re flexible as they are the practical working out of universal primary precepts
.For example, stealing would be bad as it goes against ‘living in an orderly manner’, but if it was to save a starving child it may be okay as it ‘preserves innocent life’
66
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? Yes, synderesis
.Natural Law is based on synderesis
.Humans tend to agree that there is some form of natural law, things we all think are right or wrong
.There seems to be a universal recognition of morality
.Every sane and rational person would recognise and agree that certain things are good and others bad
67
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? Yes, clear and easy to apply
.Aquinas’ Primary Precepts are clear and easy to apply
.For example, it is clear that abortion is wrong as it both does not preserve innocent life and prevents reproduction to continue the species
.The primary precepts offer a clear set of guidelines which can be used to make reasonable rules which lead to moral decision making
68
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? Yes, double effect
.Aquinas’ principle of double effect provides flexibility based on ‘good reasoning’
.As long as we act with the right intention and make all effort to do good and avoid evil then certain actions are acceptable such as killing in self defence
69
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? No, GE Moore
.G.E. puts forward the naturalistic fallacy
.He says Natural Law is far too simplistic
.Humans do not have a single ‘fixed’ human nature which means we do not have an agreement on what is right and wrong
.Goodness is not a natural property
70
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? No, mistakes
.If natural law is universal and based on unchanging moral law, then why have we made so many mistakes through the centuries?
.For example, slavery and apartheid were considered right by reason of natural law and now we look upon these acts as completely immoral
.How has our reason been so wrong?
71
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? No, Kai Nielson
.Kai Nielson argues that there is no fixed human nature and natural law
.Human nature seems to change, which leads to the debate over what is and what is not natural
.It was once accepted that homosexuality was not normal but now that idea has been challenged
.If human nature changes, can it be an effective way of making moral decisions?
72
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? No, out of date
.Natural law is out of date and not consistent with the 21st century
.A law that has been based on divine laws can enforce traditional views which means that attitudes to homosexuality are out of touch with modern attitudes
.Teleological approaches are more liberal as they assess the rightness or wrongness of an action on its outcome
73
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? No, not flexible
.Not as flexible as teleological ethics
.Joseph Fletcher would argue that situation ethics is a far better approach as it is relative to the situation
.Jeremy Bentham would argue that utilitarianism seems stronger as it is not absolute and allows ethical decisions to be made on what is best in the circumstances and what the best outcome will be
74
Is Natural Law a helpful way of making moral decisions? No, Barth
.Karl Barth argues it relies too much on human reason
.Similarly to Augustine, Barth argues that humans are too corrupted to be able to reason morally
.Humans should use divine revelation as a clearer source of ethics
75
What is legalism?
Legalistic ethics uses sets of rules and regulations
76
What is situationism?
Situationism is based on the idea that in order to make a meaningful ethical decision, the situation needs to be considered for each individual moral decision and action
77
What is antinomianism?
Antinomianism comes from the Greek meaning lawless
78
Finish the Bonhoeffer quote, ‘The reality of the world ...
... means that Christians must be prepared to take on some guilt as well.’
79
How can Bonhoeffer be used as an advocate for situation ethics?
Bonhoeffer can be seen as an advocate of situation ethics because he went against the state for the greater good of love – he disobeyed the power as he was doing it for love; the situation changed his beliefs. He did this through the Barmen Declaration, engaging in civil disobedience and taking part in the confessing church.
80
The author and philosopher C.S. Lewis identified 4 types of love in his work ‘The Four Loves', what are they and explain them?
1. Eros: erotic, passionate love
2. Philos: love of friends and equals
3. Storge: love of parents for children
4. Agape: love of mankind, unconditional love
81
Finish the Joseph Fletcher quote, ‘Love is the only ...
... universal. But love is not something we have or are, it is something we do.’
82
Explode the Joseph Fletcher quote, ‘Love is the only universal. But love is not something we have or are, it is something we do.’
‘universal’ as everyone can access it, it is innate within us and everyone can recognise it
‘something we do’ as the acts we commit are what shows love, just thinking it is not love
These actions could be putting the needs of others first, doing something that requires sacrifice
83
1. By the phrase ‘love is the only universal’, Fletcher means what?
that all humans can agree on what is the most loving thing to do
84
2. Jesus taught his message of love how?
through not only his teachings, but his actions as well. For example when he healed the man with the shrivelled hand on the Sabbath
85
What does agape mean? How is it best understood?
3. Agape means pure, unconditional Christian love, it is best understood as the love shown between a mother and her child
86
How is agape different to desire and liking?
4. Agape is different to desire and liking as ‘love wills the neighbours good’ and this is irrelevant of whether we like our neighbour or not
87
5. The essence of agape love is what? How can Christians understand this?
The essence of agape love is self-sacrifice, Christians can understand this through the death of Jesus
88
What does Fletcher believe about love?
Love is the only universal which means love is the only ethical principle
89
Love is agape, what does this mean?
unconditional self-sacrificial Christian love
90
Difference between Aquinas' and Fletcher's conscience
Aquinas’ Conscience –
.Natural ability to work out right and wrong
.All people want to ‘do good and avoid evil’
.Being able to work out what is right and wrong using our reason
Fletchers’ Conscience –
.Conscience is a ‘verb’ rather than a ‘noun’, it is something you do when you make a decision – an action
.The conscience changes for each particular circumstance
.There is no definite right or wrong – it depends on the situation
.Conscience is a flexible guide rather than prescriptive absolute rules
91
Complete the quote, ‘Sometimes you’ve gotta p...
... ut your principles to one side and do the right thing.’
92
What are the 4 working principles of situation ethics?
1. Pragmatism – practical decision making
2. Relativism – situation based ethics
3. Positivism – loving outcomes
4. Personalism – love people not laws
93
What are the 6 fundamental principles of situation ethics?
1. Only love is intrinsically good
2. The ruling norm of Christian decisions is love
3. Love and justice are the same
4. Love wills the neighbours good
5. Only the end justifies the means
6. Love’s decisions are made situationally
94
What 3 points does William Barkley make against situation ethics?
.In Ethics in a Permissive Society (1971) Barclay observed that the situations presented by Fletcher were very extreme
.He asked how often are we to make these life-and-death choices presented by Fletcher in Situation Ethics
.He argued situation ethics would work if ‘all men were angels’
.Fletcher was overly optimistic about the capacity of human beings to make morally correct choices, and not to be influenced by personal preferences
.He argued that Fletcher overestimated the value of being free from rules and constant decision making
.If agape could be used accurately, then laws would not be necessary
.But there is no guarantee that it can be, so some degree of laws are necessary for human survival
95
What two problems did David cook have with situation ethics in The Moral Maze
.A problem Cook presented was how we define a ‘situation’
.Where does a situation start and end?
.Is it when you fist think about something? Or when you perform an action?
.As Fletcher cannot be clear on this it highlights a significant problem with the theory
.Another problem arises with weighing up love in terms of consequences, how do I know and how may I guarantee certain consequences?
.Calculating consequences is a hazardous business with little certainty and with the additional problem of knowing when to stop the calculation
.Is the sum to be the most loving thing as judged at the end of this year, next year, or in thirty years time?
.The answers may be very different according to when and where we draw the line
96
Is situation ethics a helpful/practical form of ethical decision making?, yes, legalism and antinomianism
.It is flexible in that it gives personal freedom to people to decide what the most loving action is
.In this sense it is a very helpful method because you are not constrained by the difficulties of legalism
.Likewise, it is not antinomian as it uses the rule of agape as a guide
.This rule is based on the Christian principle of unconditional love
97
Is situation ethics a helpful/practical form of ethical decision making?, yes, one simple rule
.It is based on one simple rule, namely agape (love)
.Fletcher argues that this simple rules brings positive outcomes, maintains justice and also puts the needs of others (our neighbour) first
.In simpler terms Fletcher provides 6 fundamental principles highlighting how decisions should be based on love not laws
.These principles offer clear guidance on the application of situation ethics
98
Is situation ethics a helpful/practical form of ethical decision making?, yes, relative
.It is relative which means that we are not restricted by moral absolutes
.It takes into account the complexities of life and reflects the concerns that people hard with ‘absolutes’
.Unlike Kantian ethics which is rigid and fixed situation ethics acknowledges that sometimes doing the right thing may mean treating people as a means to an end
99
Is situation ethics a helpful/practical form of ethical decision making?, yes, practical and flexible
.Situation ethics, by its own definition is a practical and flexible system for making moral decisions
.For example, Fletcher’s working principles of pragmatism and relativism show that decisions are made situationally and highlights that absolutes such as ‘Do not kill’ or ‘Do not steal’ do not always bring about the most loving outcome
.Fletcher provides examples in his own theory when a liberal approach to laws must be taken in order to secure a loving outcome
100
Is situation ethics a helpful/practical form of ethical decision making?, no, Barth
.Karl Barth would argue that situation ethics is very vague –It’s impossible to say what you’re supposed to do
.How do you work out what the most loving thing is, if it changes from situation to situation especially due to the corrupt nature of human beings?
.It would be better to follow divine revelation such as the Bible and Church tradition
101
Is situation ethics a helpful/practical form of ethical decision making?, no, if we were like Jesus
.If we were all like Jesus, then doing the most loving thing might work
.William Barclay believed we (humans) can’t be trusted to do the right thing, and it would only work ‘if all men were angels’
.This is supported by Augustine’s interpretation of humanity which is fallen
.We do not act like angels, instead we misuse our free will
102
Is situation ethics a helpful/practical form of ethical decision making?, no, Pope Pius XII
.Traditional Christian thinkers have rejected Fletcher’s understanding of Jesus
.In 1952 Pope Pius XII called Situationism, ‘an individualistic and subjective’ theory which will ‘justify decisions in opposition to the natural law’
.The law and absolutes are there for the protection of society –legalism is therefore the safer and better option than situation ethics
103
Is situation ethics a helpful/practical form of ethical decision making?, no, impractical
.The rule of agape can be highly impractical
.Situation ethics may in fact offer justification for not only breaking religious laws such as the ‘commandments’ but also civil laws
.If society begins to adopt this ethical system over and above the laws of the land then the basis of our society would crumble
104
Is situation ethics a helpful/practical form of ethical decision making?, no, extreme
.Examples used by Fletcher such as dropping the bomb on Hiroshima or a Jewish woman having to smother her own child to avoid capture of the group are extreme and very rare cases
.We can argue that situation ethics is weak based simply on these
.Fletcher argues that his approach is practical yet his examples are far from it
105
Is Fletcher’s understanding of agape really religious or does it mean nothing more than wanting the best for the person involved in a given situation?, is a religious ethical approach, biblical basis
.Joseph Fletcher would clearly argue that situation ethics can be considered a Christian form of moral decision making
.The ethical theory has a Biblical basis both in the golden rule of Jesus which outlines that we should ‘treat others as we would like to be treated’ and the teaching of St. Paul who clearly outlined in his letter to the Corinthians that love was the most important virtue
.These are two Biblical examples of ‘agape’ being used by key Christian figures
106
Is Fletcher’s understanding of agape really religious or does it mean nothing more than wanting the best for the person involved in a given situation?, is a religious ethical approach, Jesus prepared to set aside some rules
.Jesus seemed to be prepared to set aside some rules in some cases, usually because a person mattered more than the rule
.So he was prepared to associate with and touch people traditionally viewed as unclean, the sinners, the sick and the tax collectors
107
Is Fletcher’s understanding of agape really religious or does it mean nothing more than wanting the best for the person involved in a given situation?, is a religious ethical approach, a principle from Jesus
.Fletcher’s understanding of agape can be seen as religious because it develops a principle from Jesus’ action of breaking the law when the situation demanded it for reasons of love
.In this sense it could be argued that SE is more consistent with the New Testament e.g. Jesus healing the man with the paralysed hand on the Sabbath day
108
Is Fletcher’s understanding of agape really religious or does it mean nothing more than wanting the best for the person involved in a given situation?, is a religious ethical approach, Jesus' gospel message
.Fletcher was inspired by Jesus’ gospel message of love and he argued that Jesus taught no ethics other than “love thy neighbour as thyself”
.Fletcher’s six fundamental principles are all focused on the idea of love, for example: “Love wills the neighbour’s good regardless of whether the neighbour is liked or not.”
109
Is Fletcher’s understanding of agape really religious or does it mean nothing more than wanting the best for the person involved in a given situation?, is not a religious ethical approach, Christianity is more legalistic
.Christianity today follows a more legalistic character based on absolutes such as those outlined in the ‘Ten Commandments’
.In this sense, situation ethics is incompatible with Christianity as it is not a legalistic approach to ethics but rather one that is relative to the situation
110
Is Fletcher’s understanding of agape really religious or does it mean nothing more than wanting the best for the person involved in a given situation?, is not a religious ethical approach, Catholic Church and sanctity of life
.The Catholic Church have very clear rules regarding the sanctity of life (the idea that life is holy and belongs to God)
.In this respect they would always view the ending of human life by another human as wrong whereas situation ethics would make this decision relative to the situation
.This means that Fletcher’s understanding of agape is not really religious but simply working out what is the best for those involved in a situation
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Is Fletcher’s understanding of agape really religious or does it mean nothing more than wanting the best for the person involved in a given situation?, is not a religious ethical approach, Pope Pius XII
.Traditional Christian thinkers have rejected Fletcher’s understanding of Jesus
.In 1952 Pope Pius XII called Situationism, ‘an individualistic and subjective’ theory which will ‘justify decisions in opposition to the natural law’
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Is Fletcher’s understanding of agape really religious or does it mean nothing more than wanting the best for the person involved in a given situation?, is not a religious ethical approach, a number of forms of authority
.The Catholic Church would argue that ethical decision making should be based on a number of forms of authority
.Fletcher uses one principle ‘agape’ but the Church would argue that the Bible, tradition and importantly ‘Natural Law’ are preferable ways in which we should make moral decisions
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, yes, allow terrible things to happen
.Situation ethics allows terrible things to happen in an attempt to do the right thing
.Due to Fletcher’s principle that the ‘end’ can justify the ‘means’ some people worry that dangerous boundary lines could be crossed e.g. wanton murder as opposed to euthanasia
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, yes, vague
.Situation ethics is fundamentally vague, resting on a very ambiguous definition of love, and could in practice be used to justify anything
.It takes relativism in the sense of opposing a plethora of absolute rules to the extreme of relativism in the sense of 'anything goes, so long as the motive can be described as "loving".'
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, yes, no boundaries
.There are no boundaries in situation ethics as it does not abide by any form of legalism
.In this sense it is close to antinomianism as people make decisions relative to the situation which could be different all the time
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, yes, Christian love
.Christian love can become individualistic
.The individual has too much control or influence, and people tend to be selfish
.If someone is given complete freedom with no rules governing them they are more likely to misuse this power
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, yes, agape rarely achieved
.Agape -an unselfish, unconditional love -is a great ideal but is rarely achieved in practice
.People need rules to live by, and can't really be trusted to do the right thing without those rules .Subjectivity can never be the standard for human conduct
.“All the ways of a man are clean in his own eyes” (Proverbs 16:2)
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, no, laws formulated through agape
.Laws, according to Fletcher have been developed or formulated through agape (love)
.Therefore, if we use love then we are acting lawfully and will not go to extremes
.We will not just focus on ourselves but love will mean that we focus on others well-being too
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, no, quality control
.Agape is the quality control of situation ethics
.If we look at Fletcher’s four presumptions we can see that each of them is a way of testing how the rule of agape can be applied e.g. is it practical or will it bring about a positive result
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, no, agape is the rule
.Agape is the rule
.It is impossible to see how someone following this ethic of ‘love’ would commit obscene acts such as murder or rape in the name of love
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, no, Jesus applied situation ethics
.Jesus applied situation ethics because he seemed to agree that ‘love and justice are the same’
.Jesus would not have followed agape if he felt it could be used to justify any act
.It was the guiding rule of agape that led to the decisions Jesus made to break Sabbath laws
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Does the rejection of absolute rules by situation ethics make moral decision-making entirely individualistic and subjective?, no, middle ground
.Situation ethics is a middle ground between legalism and antinomianism
.Due to this fact it cannot be said that it has no rules
.In fact, situation ethics will abide by rules but just might not follow the same rule in every situation
