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A Level RE > Ethics - Non-religious Normative Ethics > Flashcards

Ethics - Non-religious Normative Ethics Flashcards

1
Q

Where does the word utilitarianism come from?

A

The name ‘utilitarianism’ comes from the word ‘utility’, which means ‘usefulness’

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2
Q

What does utilitarianism argue?

A

In particular it concerns itself with working out how useful an action is based upon assessing its end results
Utilitarian’s argue that everyone should do the thing that produces the most ‘useful’ end

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3
Q

What is the thinking behind utilitarianism?

A
  1. The most useful end is seen as that which brings the maximum levels of happiness or pleasure and minimise pain
  2. Therefore, actions that produce the most happiness are the best course of action (i.e. good moral actions)
  3. This way of assessing which course of action is the best one to take is known as the ‘greatest happiness principle’
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4
Q

Finish the Jeremy Bentham quote, ‘Nature has place mankind …

A

… under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do.’

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5
Q

Bentham believed that not only do pain and pleasure explain our actions but they help us what?

A

define what is good and moral

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6
Q

What did Bentham believe utilitarianism could provide a basis for?

A

social, legal, and moral reform in society

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7
Q

ALL AO1 for Jeremy Bentham CONDENSED

A
  • Social reformer – tried to change society
  • Happiness is the sovereign good
  • Hedonist – hedonism is the pursuit of pleasure
  • One of the founders of utilitarianism
  • Happiness is the supreme ethical value
  • Maximum pleasure versus minimum pain
  • Happiness = pleasure – pain
  • Humans should avoid pain
  • Utilitarian calculus
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8
Q

What is the greatest happiness principle?

A

The Greatest Happiness Principle is at the heart of a number of ethical theories that fall under the umbrella ‘utilitarianism’
The rightness of wrongness of an action is determined by its ‘utility’ or uselessness
Usefulness refers to the amount of pleasure or happiness caused by the action

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9
Q

Finish the Bentham quote and explain: ‘It is the greatest good …

A

… to the greatest number of people which is the ensure of right and wrong.’
- Bentham believed that an action can be judged right or wrong depending on the quantity of happiness produced i.e. if the majority are happy the action is right

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10
Q

Finish the Bentham quote and explain: ‘The greatest happiness of …

A

… the greatest number is the foundation of morals and legislation.’

  • The greatest happiness principle should be the basis of a countries moral and legal system i.e. democratic society is the most useful
  • Laws and morals are founded on their impact on the majority
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11
Q

Finish the Bentham quote and explain: ‘Nature has placed mankind …

A

… under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.’

  • Bentham believed all humans pursued pleasure and sought to avoid pain
  • He saw this as a moral fact
  • Pleasur3e and pain identified what we should and should not do
  • We should always aim for maximum pleasure
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12
Q

What is the hedonic calculus?

A
  • The principle of utility, or usefulness, centres on the act of delivering the greatest amount of pleasure and the least amount of pain
  • Bentham’s solution to measuring the balance was his ‘hedonic calculus’
    It is a calculator, a way of measuring happiness
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13
Q

WHat 7 parts make up the hedonic calculus?

A
  1. Propinquity – how near it is
  2. Purity – how free from pain it is
  3. Fecundity – to what extent it will lead to other pleasures
  4. Intensity – how powerful it is
  5. Certainty – how likely it is to result
  6. Extent – how many people it affects
  7. Duration – how long it lasts
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14
Q

Why does the hedonic calculator have 7 parts?

A

The hedonic calculus has 7 parts to it, in order for a clear decision to be made

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15
Q

Define act utilitarianism

A

Usually associated with Jeremy Bentham, act utilitarianism is the idea that the hedonic calculus should be applied to the situation without considering previous experience.

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16
Q

Define rule utilitarianism

A

Usually associated with John Stuart Mill, rule utilitarianism is the idea that the correct action is the one that both conforms to the rules and leads to the greatest good. There is a strong form and weak form, with the latter allowing rules to be disobeyed if a greater amount of good comes from doing so.

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17
Q

How does John Stuart Mill distinguish between higher and lower pressures?

A

Mill distinguished between higher and lower pleasures, with the higher pleasures being qualitatively (the quality of the pleasure) better and more important than the lower pleasures.

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18
Q

Finish the John Stuart Mill quote, ‘It is better…

A

… to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied’

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19
Q

Generally how does a life of high pleasures differ?

A

A life of higher pleasures many be more difficult, but it will be more rewarding.

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20
Q

Examples of higher pleasures

A 
.Education
.Art
.Literature
.Poetry
.Morality
.Philosophy
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21
Q

Examples of lower pleasures

A

.Food
.Sex
.Sleep

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22
Q

What is act utilitarianism?

A

A teleological theory that uses the outcome of the action to determine whether it is good or bad
You must consider the consequences of the act and what will bring back the greatest happiness
Act utilitarianism is flexible – only one rule: we should always seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number in all situations

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23
Q

An aspect of Mill’s utilitarianism approach is the idea that there must be what?

A

rules to establish social order. These rules, however, should be those that, if followed universally, produce the greatest happiness for the benefit of society.

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24
Q

In rule utilitarianism, how is an action judged right or wrong?

A

An action is judged right or wrong by the goodness or badness of the consequences of a rule that everyone should follow in similar situations (e.g. telling the truth).

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25
Q

Who is Jeremy Bentham and what idea did he develop?

A

Jeremy Bentham was one of the founders of utilitarianism and the hedonic calculus, he wrote ‘Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.’

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26
Q

What is the principle of utility?

A

The principle of utility is the idea that we should do the greatest good for the greatest number of people, this provides a social, legal and moral foundation for societal reform.

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27
Q

How did John Stuart Mill differ from Bentham?

A

Bentham followed act utilitarianism, while John Stuart Mill followed rule utilitarianism. Essentially, Mill uses the consequences of rules to help him find the greatest good for the greatest number. This is done by comparing all relevant similar circumstances or settings at any time.

28
Q

Why is utilitarianism seen as a simple ethical system?

A

All you have to do is weigh up the consequences, if the good outweighs the bad then it is the correct thing to do.

29
Q

Why might utilitarianism have gained popularity in the 19th century?

A

It avoids the need for religions and divination, it replaces revelation with reason and has no need for the Bible – the western void, a decline in Christianity and an increase in scientific discovery.

30
Q

Background information for Kant

A
  • German philosopher during the enlightenment era of the late 18th century
  • Best known for his book ‘Critique of Pure Reason’
  • Associated with a deontological approach to ethics
31
Q

What is deontological ethics and how is it associated with Kant?

A
  • An ethical theory that is based upon the belief that an action is intrinsically wrong or right, irrespective of consequences
  • If a certain act is right, then it is right in all circumstances and in all conditions
  • The ethical value is in the act itself, not the outcome, Kant would reject both situation ethics and utilitarianism as they rely fully on the consequences of the act rather than the act itself
32
Q

What is Kant’s beliefs around reason?

A
  • Kant argued that there was an objective moral law (fact based and not based on opinion)
    o Our reason (human intellect) gives us the ability to determine whether an action is right or whether an action is wrong. For example, all human beings would accept that ‘murder is wrong’ is a reasonable law
    o His approach to reason was based on the belief that humans were rational beings and able to work out right or wrong. They did not require the rules and regulations of the Church to support them.
33
Q

What are Kant’s beliefs around good will?

A
  • Kant argues that the morality of our actions does not depend on their outcome. When we act, the consequence is often beyond our control
  • The only control we have is the ‘good will’ behind the action
  • The only thing that is ‘good’ without qualification is the good will (intention)
  • The consequences of an action are irrelevant
34
Q

What are Kant’s beliefs around duty?

A
  • Kant believed that morality was not about achieving goals; morality was an end in itself
  • We have a duty to act in accordance with the law, the law is determined using our reason
  • The word ‘deontological’ comes from the Greek work ‘deon’ meaning duty, some acts are right or wrong because of the sorts of things they are
  • Kant’s approach to ethics is summed up in this quote:
    o ‘Do the right thing for the right reason because it’s the right thing to do.’
35
Q

How is utilitarianism used in everyday life?

A

We make lots of non-moral decisions every day based upon consequences. In shops we try to find the shortest line so we can get out the door quicker. We make lots of financial decisions based on cost vs benefit. So, using utilitarianism for moral decisions is just an extension of our daily decision-making procedures.

36
Q

Why does the phrase ‘end justifies the means’ pose a problem for utilitarianism?

A

If any end can justify any means then a true ethical foundation is lost. But the end does not always justify the means – if that were so, Hitler had right to justify the holocaust (the end was to purify humanity). The means must justify themselves.

37
Q

Outline the problems faced by minorities and the issue of predicting consequences in regards to utilitarianism

A

Utilitarianism cannot protect the rights of minorities, as they are not the greatest number. Americans in the 18th century can justify slavery by using utilitarianism as it provides a good consequence for most Americans. It also means that consequences are not readily predicted. We can only guess the ends, and often these educated guesses are wrong.

38
Q

What does the argument ‘provides no objective and consistent foundation’ mean, in regards to utilitarianism?

A

Utilitarianism cannot be judged objectively, only subjectively. We cant judge the results as the results are used to judge the action.

39
Q

Arguments for utilitarianism

A 
Straight forward and simple
Relates to the real world
Bentham – Hedonic calculus provides a clear measurement
Rules are useful
John Stuart Mill – weak rule is flexible
Bentham – morally democratic
40
Q

Arguments against utilitarianism

A

Immanuel Kant – end does not always justify the means
John Stuart Mill – can lead to injustice
Karl Barth – Hedonic calculus can be difficult to apply
W.D. Ross – no room for obligation or duty
Augustine – individualistic and selfish
Aquinas – Natural Laws are far clearer

41
Q

What is an imperative?

A

An imperative is something that must be done.

42
Q

What is a hypothetical imperative?

A

A hypothetical imperative is an action considered as right depending upon a condition and usually takes the form of ‘if … then it is right.’

43
Q

What is a categorical imperative?

A

Kant’s idea that an action is intrinsically right or irrespective of context or consequence.

44
Q

What did Kant believe about hypothetical imperatives and moral obligation?

A

Kant did not see the hypothetical imperative as referring to morality because there was no obligation or duty to the approach. It seemed to justify any form of action to bring about happiness (utilitarianism) or live (situation ethics). For Kant, the idea of moral obligation come from within us and every action should be judged on its own accord rather than the result of consequence.

45
Q

Kants beliefs surrounding formula of the law of nature

A
  • The only actions that can be moral are ones that can be universalised (i.e. applied in all situations and to all rational beings without exception)
46
Q

Finish the Kant quote

‘Always act in such a way …

A

… that you would be willing for it to become a general law that everyone else should do the same in the same situation’

47
Q

Kants beliefs surrounding formula of the end itself

A
  • Kant held that human beings were the pinnacle of creation
  • Therefore, it can never be moral to exploit people to use them as a means to an end
  • Kant disagrees with teleological ethics and believes that the action and people involved are more important than the outcome
48
Q

Kants beliefs surrounding formula of the kingdom of ends

A
  • It means that by using our reason we should all be able to see that moral laws are correct and that morality is only possible in accordance with these truths
  • It further implies that we should only include as a maxim (truth) those things we should be willing for us all to live by in a kingdom (world)
49
Q

Kant believes Duty has to be the ______ reason for out actiona

A

operational

50
Q

Strengths of the categorical imperative

A

Emphasizes the value of every human being
It provides a basis for human rights (universal laws)
It provides certainty – we can’t predict the future so we should focus on our actions not the consequences
It provides a rule-based system that is appealing as it provides

51
Q

Weaknesses of the categorical imperative

A

It is absolutist, that means there is no flexibility and the system is too rigid
It could reduce happiness
Seems to idealistic, it would only work in a perfect world
Do we all share an understanding of what our duty is?

52
Q

What did Kant believe about universal agreement?

A

There seems to be a universal agreement that some actions are right and some are wrong

53
Q

What did Kant believe about reason?

A

To discover the right action we must apply our reason (intellect), this will reveal the categorical imperative we must obey

54
Q

What did Kant believe about duty for duties sake?

A

Duty should not be a response to threat or reward, we are obliged to carry out certain actions, it is logical for a virtuous action to be rewarded by happiness

55
Q

What did Kant believe about the summum bonum?

A

When virtue (actions) and happiness come together this is the sumum bonum (highest good)

56
Q

What were Kant’s 3 postulates of the summum bonum?

A

Postulate 1: freedom/autonomy – Truly virtuous acts are only virtuous if they are freely chosen
Postulate 2: immortality – Virtuous acts ought to result in perfect happiness (ought means can), if we don’t achieve happiness in this life then it must be in the next
Postulate 3: God – The only way to accept belief in an afterlife is to accept belief in God

57
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? Yes, fletcher

A

.Kantian ethics is so reliant on reason that it unduly rejects the importance of other factors, such as sympathy, empathy, and love in moral decision making
.Joseph Fletcher would argue that situation ethics is a far more practical form of decision making because these factors are taken into account

58
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? Yes, cold

A

.There are no exceptions in using people as means to ends which severely restricts our behavior
.Putting duty above feeling is cold and inhuman, there is no place for love and personal relations in Kant’s theory

59
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? Yes, reason

A

.Kant is accused of being too reliant on reason when making ethics decisions
.He believes we can use our reason to act with good will and duty
.However, scholars would argue that reason is not always correct
.Aquinas states there are apparent goods and real goods
.This means we sometime think we are acting in the correct way but our reason may be wrong

60
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? Yes, incoherent

A

.If you do not accept the 3 necessary parts of Kant’s argument then it becomes incoherent and therefore does not make sense
.If you reject belief in God then there is no being to decide who is worthy of the summum Bonum and to deliver it accordingly

61
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? Yes, immortality

A

.If there is no immortality (afterlife) then there can be no summum bonum and, arguably, no reason to suppose there’s any justice at all for acting morally
.We have no sufficient proof of immortality of the afterlife to accept this
.His ideas are too abstract

62
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? Yes, freedom

A

.There is no such thing as true freedom; our decisions are practically made for us based on our culture, upbringing, education, financial circumstances and so on
.The idea that all of our choices are not really free is called determinism

63
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? No, categorical imperative

A

.Categorical imperative tells us exactly what is right and wrong, giving us clear sense of moral guidelines
.Unlike hypothetical imperatives that rely on predicting consequences Kant focuses on duty
.Do the right thing because it is the right thing to do

64
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? No, duty

A

.Kant makes it clear that morality is doing one’s duty and not just following feelings
.We cannot assume what is good for us is good for everyone else
.Kant would argue that teleological ethical theory is too abstract as it seems to justify any action based on the outcome

65
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? No, rational

A

.Kant’s ethics are rational
.He is not swayed by emotion
.His theory does not allow us to show favoritism for friends
.It is purely rational theory
.Unlike utilitarianism and Situation Ethics, which can often be weakened by emotional decision making, Kantian ethics are not

66
Q

Are Kantian Ethics too Abstract to be Applicable to Practical Moral Decision Making? No, 3 logical parts

A

Kant’s theory is based on three necessary parts that logically fit together
.Kant’s concept of the summon Bonum is based on reason and as long as you accept the three parts of the argument, then you can reasonably accept the conclusion that the summon Bonum exists

A Level RE (29 decks)

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