Ethics - Applied Ethics - Business and Medical Flashcards
The Catholic Church argues that we have the right to die with ____ but this does not means they agree with ____ __ ____ _____
dignity
euthanasia or assisted suicide
What does the Catholic Church believe about any action that brings life to an end?
Any deliberate action that brings life to an end is wrong
Pope John Paul II quote about euthanasia
‘I confirm that euthanasia is wrong as it breaks the law of God.’ Pope John Paul II
What does the Catholic Church see as an alternative to euthanasia and assisted suicide?
The Church sees ‘Palliative Care’ as alternative to euthanasia and assisted suicide.
In 1983, Singer caused controversy with the following comment on the Baby Doe abortion case in the USA:
‘If we compare a severely defective human infant with a non-human animal, a dog or a pig, for example, we will often find the non-human to have superior capabilities.’
In Rethinking Life and Death (1994) Singer sets out his five new rational quality of life commandments to replace those of the traditional sanctity of life position, what are these 5 commandments?
- Recognize that the worth of human life varies
- Take a responsibility for the consequences of your decision
- Respect a person’s desire to live or die
- Bring children into the world only if they are wanted
- Do not discriminate based on species
Definition of sanctity of life
Life belongs to God and is sacred, and so only God can give and take life
Sources for sanctity of life
The book of Genesis in the Old Testament, it says that God breathed life into out nostrils and created man in his own image (imago dei)
How can sanctity of life be applied to euthanasia?
The Catholic Church do not accept euthanasia as it goes against the sanctity of life, it is classed as blasphemy which is a direct action against God
Definition of quality of life
The idea that life must have some benefits for it to be worth living, human life must possess certain attribute to be worthy
Sources of evidence for quality of life
Peter Singer, a humanist
How quality of life can be applied to euthanasia
Singer argues in favor of euthanasia using the quality-of-life argument, he says we must respect a person’s desire to live or die, decisions about life and death should not be taken on behalf of an ultimate reality with no proof that it exists
What are the two Philippe Mahoux quotes?
‘We must not allow people to be in a hopeless medical situation of constant and unbearable suffering that cannot be eased and which will cause death in the short term.’
‘the ultimate gesture of humanity’
What is the slippery slope argument?
where do we draw the line? What illnesses do we allow euthanasia for?
Views of euthanasia for CC, Aquians, Singer, Fletcer, slipper slope, and why for each?
- Catholic Church – No – Sanctity of Life
- Aquinas – No – Natural Law
- Peter Singer – Yes – Quality of Life
- Joseph Fletcher – Yes – Situation Ethics
- Slipper Slope Argument – No – where does it stop?
St Thomas Aquinas’ vies on euthanasia, why this is, and how the double effect can be used?
Based on his ‘Natural Theory’ euthanasia is not acceptable
The primary and secondary commandments are clear:
‘defend innocent life’, ‘orderly society’, ‘worship God’, and ‘do not kill’
Double effect would allow extended pain relief but never any action that intentionally ended a life
Singer’s views on autonomy, and why he holds them?
Singer argues that euthanasia is permissible, and people do have autonomy over their lives
This autonomy extends to parents to young children who cannot make the conscious decision themselves
This is based on the quality of life principle
Fletcher’s views on autonomy, and why?
Fletchers argument would support the autonomy of the person
His principle of agape extends to euthanasia as the situation may call for euthanasia
His working principles can be used it justify ‘mercy killing’
The ‘end may justify the means’
Slipper slope views on euthanasia and why?
If the law permits euthanasia a dangerous precedent is set
A society that allows voluntary euthanasia or assisted suicide may gradually accept non-voluntary
Pressure on people with disability and discourages care for the sick
Essentially, what does the hippocratic oath tell doctors to do?
protect and preserve
Define suicide
When a person dies as a direct result of their own voluntary action
Define assissted suicide
When a person dies as a direct result of their own voluntary action but with the help of another person
Define physician aided suicide
When a person dies as a direct result of their own voluntary action, with the help of a doctor or physician
Define physician aid in dying
When a person’s death is hastened but not directly caused by the aid (for example, medication) of a doctor or physician
Define voluntary euthanasia
When a person’s death is directly caused by another person (perhaps a doctor) at their request and with their consent
Define euthanasia
When a doctor withdraws life-sustaining treatment which indirectly causes death, the doctor allows a patient to die by ‘letting nature take its course’
Define non-voluntary euthanasia
When a person’s life is ended without their consent but with the consent of someone representing their interests
Moral issues of assisted suicide?
Someone could take advantage of the situation?
Moral issues of non-voluntary euthanasia?
They did not give consent
Finish the Fletcher quote, ‘In a few words, it is whether we can morally justify …
… taking it into our own hands, as human beings, to hasten death for ourselves (suicide) or for others (mercy killing) out of reasons of compassion. The answer in my view is clearly yes, on both sides of it. Indeed, to justify one, suicide or mercy killing, is to justify the other.’
How can pragmatism, from situation ethics, be applied to euthanasia?
o Each case must be judged according to its merits
o No intrinsic laws which prevent euthanasia
o For PVS with limited quality of life, the more compassionate thing is euthanasia
o Using limited resources to keep a terminally ill patient alive at all costs at the expense of their welfare is unjustifiable
How can relativism, from situation ethics, be applied to euthanasia?
o Killing innocent people cannot be an absolute wrong
o Each case must be judged according to love and compassion
o Sanctity of life could mean helping someone to die if they are in considerable pain
How can positivism, from situation ethics, be applied to euthanasia?
o No law states life must be preserved at all costs
o Laws and rules are made for humane treatment
o This might mean helping people to die if it’s the better course of action for them
How can personalism, from situation ethics, be applied to euthanasia?
o The principle of love acknowledges that a person’s life might cease to be instrumentally of value to them
o It also recognizes that their humanity if more significant than their mere biological existence
What is the conclusion of situation ethics on euthanasia?
In conclusion: It is harder to justify letting someone die a slow and ugly death, dehumanized than it is to justify helping him escape from such misery
How can orderly society, from natural law, be applied to euthanasia?
o Suicide and euthanasia in all forms undermines the stability of society as it undermines the purpose of the citizen to maintain its law
o It is a sign that society has failed in its duty to care for all its members
How can duty to God, from natural law, be applied to euthanasia?
o Aquinas states that a primary natural law duty is to worship God
o Both Aquinas and Augustine argue that suicide and euthanasia is a failure of one’s duty to protect an innocent life
o All forms of euthanasia or physician aided dying are illicit and intrinsically wrong
How can no refusal or treatment, from the perspective of natural law, be applied to euthanasia?
o The doctrine of ordinary and extraordinary means does not permit a person to refuse ordinary treatment
o In Evangelium Vitae, the Pope makes a distinction between ordinary and extraordinary treatment
What is ordinary treatment?
o Ordinary treatment is obligatory
Life must be preserved providing that it does not cause extra burden on the patient
This involves giving a sick person basic care like food and water
• Necessary to sustain life
• Does not enhance or prolong it
What is extraordinary treatment?
o Extraordinary treatment is not obligatory
Extraordinary treatments are those which do not have high expectations of success (like surgery) or could be dangerous (like experimental therapies)
How can duty to protect innocent life, from natural law, be applied to euthansia?
o The natural law argument is that whatever state of conscience a person is in they cannot cease to be a person
o Non-voluntary euthanasia for a PVS, incompetent, seriously disabled or very sick baby is not permitted as death is defined as a cessation of the heart and brain
o Natural law also says only self defense is a sufficient reason to kill
o Therefore, as a doctor has a duty to protect a patient from committing suicide assisted suicide/euthanasia is murder
How can the doctrine of double effect, from natural law, be applied to euthanasia?
Only the doctrine of double effect permits allowing a patient to die in certain rare circumstances as a side effect of pain-relieving treatment, but the intension must never be directly to cause death.
Whatever the case, euthanasia is a moral evil.
Even passive euthanasia is wrong if the intention is to cause death, this is the position held by the Catholic Church in its Declaration on Euthanasia (1980)
What is the case of Tony Nicklinson?
.Locked in syndrome .Fought for the right to end his life .Described his life as a 'living nightmare' .Lost his case in the high court .From that point on he refused food
What is the case of Daniel James?
.Scum collapsed on him in rugby and broke his neck
.Mother - ‘he couldn’t walk … and needed 24-hour care’
.Travelled to Switzerland to kill himself by lethal injection at Dignitas
.Parents supported his decision - ‘His death was, no doubt, a welcome relief from the prison his body had become and the day-to-day fear and loathing of his living existence.’
What is the case of Baroness Jane Campbell?
.When born, doctors gave her years to live
.Now a leading campaigner for the rights of people with disabilities and a member of the British House of Lords
.Opposes euthanasia and assisted suicide
.Supports the charity Care Not Killing which promotes palliative care
.Any change in law would place too much pressure on the disabled and terminally ill and send out a message regarding how much life is valued
What is the case of the British Medical Council?
.2006 led a campaign
.Ill patients who beg to end their life often change their mind
.Puts pressure on vulnerable people to not be a burden on their carers
.David Williams, a 51 year old father of 3 supports Care Not Killing, backs the campaign
.Williams - ‘People would be put under pressure because when you are that ill, you just want to do whatever is the easiest thing.’
Positives of situation ethics for euthanasia - - It is a practical and relative approach to ethics
o This is based on the 4 working principles of Fletcher
o This means that ethical decisions can and must change, depending on the situation or circumstances
Positives of situation ethics for euthanasia - - It is based on a single principle (agape, unconditional love)
o This means that situational ethics is simple to apply and should result in a positive and loving outcome for all involved
o E.g. Daniel James, former youth rugby player who was left paralysed after an accident, his parents supported his decision to die
Positives of situation ethics for euthanasia - - It is a flexible approach to ethical decision making
o This means we are not bound or restricted by the absolutism (unchanging belief) of the Natural Law approach
Positives of situation ethics for euthanasia - - Situation Ethics would be supported by Humanist, Peter Singer
o Singer argues for a quality of life approach which is much more suited to Situation Ethics rather than Natural Law
o He argues we should abandon ‘sanctity of life’
Negatives of situation ethics for euthanasia - - William Barclay
o ‘If all men were angels’
o Barclay’s argument suggests that Situation Ethics is open to abuse with euthanasia
o People might manipulate the approach for selfish means
o Baroness Jane Campbell campaigns for the rights of the disabled
She argues that Situation Ethics might lead to a slippery slope where the rights of vulnerable people are removed
Negatives of situation ethics for euthanasia - - Karl Barth & St Augustine
o They take the approach that humans are fallen and corrupt beings
o For this reason, ethical approaches such as Natural Law are far more appealing as they provide clear guidance on how on should act
o E.g. defend innocent life and live in an orderly society
Negatives of situation ethics for euthanasia - - The Catholic Church are firmly against Situation Ethics as a form of moral decision making
o In 1952, the Church called situation based approaches “individualistic and subjective”
o This means euthanasia can be used immorally in examples such as disability and genetics
Positives of natural law for euthanasia, clear rules and guidance
- Natural law is based upon clear rules and guidance, for example divine laws such as Commandments and Church teachings, and also focuses on human laws. Euthanasia is illegal in the UK which supports the idea that ‘mercy killing’ is considered to be inherently wrong
Positives of natural law for euthanasia, primary precepts
- It is based on the primary precepts, in particular defending innocent life and maintaining an orderly society. These precepts give clear direction that killing should be avoided in almost all circumstances. The precepts can be used to protect the most vulnerable in society, i.e. Jane Campbell
Positives of natural law for euthanasia, synderisis
- Natural law follows the principle of synderesis which means ‘doing good and avoiding evil’. According to the sanctity of life world view, euthanasia is seen as evil as it ends life which only God can do.
Negative of natural law for euthanasia, synderisis
- The synderesis principle can be interpreted to support the use of euthanasia, the example of Daniel James shows that the ‘evil’ might be letting him continue to suffer, his parents supported his assisted suicide as they saw this as a good action.
Negative of natural law for euthanasia, GE Moore
- GE Moore and Kai Nielson both argue that humans do not have a fixed nature, the fact that we disagree over moral issues of right and wrong highlights a significant weakness in natural law theory, for example, why is euthanasia legal in some countries and illegal in others?
Negative of natural law for euthanasia, Tony NIckelson
- Tony Nickelson (locked in syndrome), Peter Singer would challenge natural law based on a person’s quality of life, if a person is living a life of immense suffering the surely it seems ‘natural’ to put an end to this suffering. People should have autonomy (freedom) over their own bodies. Singer would argue that any moral theory based on religious principles is wrong.
Negative of natural law for euthanasia, Christopher Hictchens
- The famed atheist, Christopher Hitchens, argued that religion is the original sin. The fact that we allow people to live a life of misery and suffering based on the idea that life is sacred and belongs to God could be accused of being evil itself.
Define corporate social responsibility
the idea that a business has a wider responsibility towards the different stakeholders involved, e.g. staff, customers, environment etc.
Define whistleblowing
where an employee discloses wrongdoing to the employer or the public
Define good ethics is good business
the idea that how you treat your stakeholders and customers will have a positive effect on your business
Define globilisation
in business this refers to world economies, industries, markets, cultures, and policy-making being integrated (linked)
How can you enact corporate social responsibility?
- Economic progress, social justice, and environmental preservation
- Company has to be beneficial to all stakeholders
- Take care of the safety of the workforce
- Follow and uphold laws
- Be an ethical company
What is a stakeholder?
A stakeholder is anyone with an interest in an organisation
List some points of primark’s ethical framework
- No advertising
- But in bulk
- Not a big profit margin
- Cares about standards in supply chain
a. Working hours
b. Fair pay - Provide teaching/training
- Code of conduct
a. Clear ethical framework - Ethical trade team (80+ people)
- Local employees understand culture and context
- 2500 audits each year
a. Could be unannounced - Workers voice
- ETI
- ACT
- Global textile union
- Her health initiative
Explain how the marmite maker is ethical
Marmite Maker ‘Unilever’ to Insist Suppliers Pay ‘Living Wage’
- By 2030 it will refuse to do business with any firm that does not pay at least a living wage or income to its staff
- The consumers goods giant defined a living wage as one that covered a family’s basic needs and ‘helped them break the cycle of poverty’
WHat is Catholic Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility, in terms of business ethics?
In 2012, the leader of the Catholic Church in England wrote an article called: ‘A Blueprint for Better Business’
He drew upon Aquinas’ natural law and the tradition of Catholic Social Teaching and presented 7 principles for good business, such as:
1. Human dignity
a. Each person should be treated as a human and never treated as an instrument to make a profit
2. Common good
a. A business should work for the benefits or interests of all people not just shareholders
3. Solidarity
a. A business must be in touch with the needs of communities, particularly by looking for ways of helping under privileged communities
Finish the Cardinal Nichols quote and explain what it means, ‘‘…simply knowing …
… the moral law … no more makes someone a better person than knowing the rules of football makes them a better player.’
Cardinal Nichols is arguing its not enough to simply know the law, a Catholic has a responsibility to follow and uphold the law, if the law is not being followed then they must challenge this
What does Robert C Solomon believe about business and ethics?
Many people will make a point of buying what they perceive as ethically sourced goods and will not buy from companies which use what they see as unethical practices, such as child-exploitation or deforestation
Few people return to companies they feel have treated them dishonestly or disrespectfully
Therefore, businesses have a responsibility to all stakeholders – customers, employees, shareholders and the community where it is based
Pope Francis has appealed to business and political leaders attending the World Economic Forum in Davis to put ethics before economics, saying what?
“The overriding consideration, never to be forgotten, is that we are all members of the one human family. The moral obligation to care for one another flows from this fact, as does the correlative principle of placing the human person, rather than the mere pursuit of power or profit, at the very centre of public policy.”
What does Pope Francis say of Utilitarianism?
“All too often materialistic or utilitarian visions, sometimes hidden, sometimes celebrated, lead to practices and structures motivated largely, or even solely, by self-interest.”
Describe the case of Edward Snowdon
- In 2013, a computer expert and former CIA systems administrator, Edward Snowden released confidential government documents to the press about the existence of government surveillance programs
- According to many legal experts, the US government, his actions violated the Espionage Act of 1917, which identified the leak of state secretes as an act of treason
- Yet despite the fact that he broke the law, Snowden argued that he had a moral obligation to act
- He gave justification for his ‘whistleblowing’ by stating that he had a duty: “To inform the public as to that which is done in their name and that which is done against them”
Arguments in Favour of Whistleblowing
The moral law may be more important than the contract or law of the country
Employees/stakeholders have a right to know the truth
In Snowdon’s case, this security initiative had an impact upon all citizens so they should be aware of what was happening
It may be a crime or breaking contract but we must consider the greater good, a utilitarian would have to weigh up GHP whereas Kantian would focus on good will and duty to the moral law (categorical imperative)
Arguments Against Whistleblowing
It may break the law or break a contract with your employer
It could be the downfall of a busines which means people will lose their jobs and potentially have greater consequences
In Snowdon’s case, whistleblowing in the CIA may lead to further implications such as loss of life and decreased security for the country
A utilitarian would have to consider the maths involved and consider the outcome or consequences, it will be the outcome that will deem the action appropriate
Would Kant support whistleblowing?
Kant would ague that laws should be universalised. For instance, if we accept lying in order to bring about the greater good then we essentially accept lying no matter what.
Kant would support whistleblowing because he believes people have a moral duty to tell the truth.
What Makes a Business Ethical?
- Solidarity with community
- Environmentally friendly
- Human dignity – respect for people
- Have a code of conduct/values
- Take feedback – listen to stakeholders
- Ethical products
Positives of being an ethical business
Generates customers Negotiate better if honest Happier employees might work harder Fair pay and better working conditions Working for the common good and show solidarity Better products and happier customers
Negatives of being an ethical business
Time consuming
Expensive
Increased costs because they may have to change supply chain
Increased costs for the business might lead to increased costs for the customer which may be counterproductive
What unethical behaviours did Volkswagen display?
- Cheating on fumes test, lying
- Damage to environment
- Managers blamed it on employees
- Selfish behaviour to increase profit
Emples of good businesss ethics
The Body Shop – ethical supply chain and products
Primark code of conduct to ensure corporate social responsibility
Costco – taking care of its staff (payment)
Unilever (Marmite) – offering a living wage
Toms – every £3 made £1 is given away, they have given away 100 million pairs of shoes
H&M – conscious campaign
Examples of bad business ethics
Volkswagen – lying to customers and environmental issues
Nike – issues with the supply chain
Amazon – aggressive tax avoidance
Starbucks – tax evasion
BP – Deepwater Horizon spill in the Gulf of Mexico
Is Good Business Based on Outcome or Action? Kant
Immanuel Kant uses the ‘Good Shopkeeper’ analogy when discussing business ethics. For Kant, duty should be carried out for duties sake. The actions and processes of a business are more important than the outcome.
Is Good Business Based on Outcome or Action? Bentham
Jeremy Bentham would apply the ‘pleasure principle’ to business ethics and look for the greatest happiness for the greatest number (quantitive approach).
Is Good Business Based on Outcome or Action? Mill
John Stuart Mill would apply the GHP but would focus on a more qualitative approach. He is also associated with ‘rule utilitarianism’.
Kant’s good shopkeeper analogy
Shopkeeper 1:
The first is honest because he is scared of being caught if he tries to cheat his customers. This shopkeeper is motivated by selfish emotion rather than duty or obligation.
Shopkeeper 2:
The second is honest because he believes it is morally right to be honest. This shopkeeper acts out of duty and that is the standard Kant expects.
The first shopkeeper is motivated to be honest by the rewards of a positive reputation and profit. The second is motivated by respect for morally right action. Taking these motivations into consideration from the standpoint of Kantian ethics, it is clear which shopkeeper is acting right.
The second shopkeeper acts in accordance with Kant’s categorical imperative. Unlike the first, the second shopkeeper is honest because he knows it is morally right.
