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Surgery > esophagus > Flashcards

esophagus Flashcards

1
Q

what does the esophagus do

A

muscular alimentary tube 25cm long that connects the pharynx to the stomach

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2
Q

levels of the esophagus

A

starts at cricoid cartilage (6th cerv vert) and ends just below diaphragm (11th thoracic vert)

15cm from incisors to about 40cm from incisors

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3
Q

3 areas of esophageal narrowing

A
  • prox esophagus at level of cricopharyngeus muscle
  • midesophageal at level of aortic arch
  • dist narrowing as level of diaphragm
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4
Q

two functional sphincters in esophagus

A
  • UES at cricopharyngeus muscle

- LES between esophagus and stomach

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5
Q

arterial/venous/lymphatic supply of cervical esophagus

A
  • inferior thyroid artery from thyrocervical trunk artery
  • inferior thyroid vein
  • deep cervical (jugular) nodes
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6
Q

arterial/venous/lymphatic supply of thoracic esophagus

A
  • bronchial arteries and small esophageal arteries from thoracic aorta
  • azygos being and hemiazygos vein
  • nodes in posterior mediastinum (paratracheal and pulmonary hilar)
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7
Q

arterial/venous/lymphatic supply of distal esophagus

A
  • left gastric artery
  • coronary and left gastric vein
  • celiac, left gastric, parahiatal nodes
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8
Q

what leads to esophageal varices

A

in liver cirrhosis w portal vein htn, the lower esophageal venous plexus provides collateral drainage from portal venous system to azygos veins

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9
Q

nerves of the proximal esophagus

A

recurrent laryngeal nerves of the vagus nerve and cervical sympathetic chain

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10
Q

what happens when there is damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerve

A

disrupts vocal cords and swallowing mechanism of upper esophagus inc risk of aspiration

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11
Q

nerves of mid and distal esophagus

A

vagus and thoracic sympathetic chain

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12
Q

what happens when the myenteric plexus is damaged

A

leads to achalasia (failure of esophageal muscle relaxation)

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13
Q

motor innervation of the esophagus is supplied through

A

vagus

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14
Q

4 layers of esophageal wall

A

mucosa(superficial and deep), submucosa, muscularis propria, adventitia

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15
Q

cell type of muscularis propria

A

striated muscle fibers of prox 1/3 to smooth muscle distal 2/3

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16
Q

cell type of mucosa

A

nonkeratinizing, stratified squamous epithelium

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17
Q

Barrett’s esophagus

A

presence of columnar epithelium in the esophagus; results from a metaplastic change caused by repeated inflammation of normal squamous epithelium; small, but significant tendency toward the development of cancer.

GERD

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18
Q

what does the resting high pressures of the sphincters help prevent

A

reflux and regurg of digestive material back up the esophagus

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19
Q

dysphagia

A

difficulty w transition of ingested substances from the mouth to the stomach; liquids and solids

food becomes “stuck”

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20
Q

odynophagia

A

painful swallowing; can be due to esophageal infx, foreign body in esophagus or injury of esophagus

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21
Q

globus hystericus

A

“lump in throat”

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22
Q

heartburn

A

pyrosis or water brash; assoc w GERD, achalasia, esophageal stricutes;

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23
Q

regurgitation

A

passive return of ingested material into oropharynx

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24
Q

vomiting

A

active return of stomach contents into oropharynx

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25
Q

mc cause of esophageal bleeding

A

ulcerative esophagitis; usually causes occult blood in stool

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26
Q

singultus

A

“hiccup”; diaphragmatic irritation and may indicate hernia

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27
Q

different dx eval of esophagus

A
  • barium esophagography: pt swallows barium and monitored w real time video to assess esophageal motility and look for hiatal hernia, diverticula or obstruction
  • esophageal manometry:direct simultaneous measurement of intraluminal pressures at multiple levels; function of both UES and LES; tube in nose and swallow water; achalasia, esophageal spasm and GERD
  • esophageal pH monitoring:distal esophagus for GERD, 24hr study w pH probe in nose ph
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28
Q

imaging studies

A
  • CT: esophageal perf
  • upper endoscopy: visualization and bx, dilations, injections
  • endoscopic us (EUS): detailed imaging of esophageal wall and adjacent lymph node;fine needle aspiration; cancer,lesions
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29
Q

causes of poor LES function leading to GERD

A

-hiatal hernia, inc intra abd or gastric pressures, food/drug induced relaxation, abnorm esophageal peristaltic activity

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30
Q

pt with heartburn, regurg, and dysphagia, dyspepsia after heavy/greasy meal

A

GERD

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31
Q

how can symptoms of GERD be induced

A

lie supine or lean over to tie shoes

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32
Q

late complications of GERD

A
  • schatzki’s ring: stricture of distal esophagus

- Barrett’s esophagus: intestinal metaplasia of distal esophageal mucosa

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33
Q

recommendation for managing Barretts esophagus assoc w low grade dysplasia

A

routine f/u endoscopy every 6-12m w 4 quadrant bx ever 1-2cm of involved esophagus

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34
Q

w/u for GERD

A
  • barium swallow
  • esophageal manometry
  • 24 hr ph study
  • upper endoscopy
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35
Q

tx GERD

A
  • behavioral modifications: eating habits, posture, avoid triggers (smoking, alcohol, anticholinergics, calcium, beta blockers, xanthines, aspirin, acidic foods, fatty meals, caffeine, chocolate)
  • PPIs- nexium, prevacid, prilosec, protonix,
  • surgery
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36
Q

principles of antireflux surgery

A

(1) restoration of an intra-abdominal segment of esophagus, (2) reconstruction of the esophageal hiatus in the diaphragm, and (3) reinforcement of the LES, usually with a fundoplication.

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37
Q

fundoplication

A

operation to restore competence to the esophagogastric junction as part of the treatment of sliding hiatal hernia and reflux esophagitis; the most common is the Nissen fundoplication, in which the gastric fundus is wrapped around the lower and intra-abdominal segment of the esophagus to produce an acute angle of His and other functional changes.

38
Q

two types of esophageal cancer

A
  • squamous cell carcinoma

- adenocarcinoma

39
Q

SCC of esophagus

A
  • AA male
  • mid to pro segment but can involve distal
  • strong assoc w alcohol and tobacco
40
Q

adenocarcinoma

A
  • now mc
  • whites
  • distal and assoc w Barretts
41
Q

s/sx of carcinoma

A
  • both dysphagia w solid foot and weight loss

- adeno also assoc w reflux

42
Q

dx of carcinoma

A
  • barium swallow
  • endoscopic eval

-ct and pet for metastasis

43
Q

tx carcinoma

A

surgical resection

44
Q

pros and cons of using the stomach as an esophageal substitute

A

pro: rich vascular supply, ease of surgical mobilization as vascularized pedicle, cease 2 less GI anastomosis
cons: risk of ischemia, postop GERD

45
Q

pros and cons of using the left colon as an esophageal substitute

A

pros: longer length, vascular, close size match, more resistant to reflux
cons: two additional anastomoses, greater technical experience needed in assessing and mobilizing colon vasculature

46
Q

two ways for surgical resection of the esophagus

A

thoracotomy or transhiatal approach

47
Q

the 3 main surgical approaches in performing a thoractomy

A
  • Ivor Lewis: mc via right thorax combined w abd incision; gastroesophageal anastomosis is located in right chest
  • McKeown: for tumors involving prox and midesophagus w 3 incisions (abd, right thoracotomy, cervical) plus cervical gastroesophageal anastomosis
  • enbloc resection: distal esophagus tumor ext into stomach; left thoracoabd incision
48
Q

pros and cons of a transmittal approach

A

pros: avoidance of painful thoracotomy incision, dec lung trauma from mechanical retraction, avoidance of intrathoracic anastomosis
cons: limited resection of large tumors, greater potential for local tumor spillage from blunt dissection, greater stretch of stomach to reach neck

49
Q

what is the goal of neoadjuvant therapy (preop therapy)

A

down stage the tumor and improve cancer survival after surgical resection

(5fluorouracil and cisplatinum w 45gy radiation over 6-7weeks)

50
Q

palliative interventions for pt w terminal esophageal carcinoma are directed toward

A

relief of severe dysphagia and obstruction

51
Q

types of palliative interventions

A
  • dilatation
  • stents
  • laser and photodynamic therapy
  • radiation and chemo
52
Q

Boerhaave’s syndrome

A

spontaneous tear of the distal esophagus can also occur after episode of violent vomiting and retching

53
Q

where do most cervical esophagus injuries due to endoscopic instrumentation occur

A

level of cricopharyngeal sphincter

54
Q

immediate concern of cervical esophageal injury

A

sepsis

55
Q

pain w swallowing and neck flexion; tenderness and crepitus; air in retrovsiceral space on X-ray

A

cervical esophageal injury

56
Q

tx cervical esophageal injury

A
  • IV abx
  • surgical debridement
  • drainage
57
Q

acute signs of sepsis, chest pain, respiratory distress, pleural effusion

A

thoracic esophageal injury

58
Q

tx thoracic esophageal injury

A
  • med manag: abx, ng drainage, distal tube feeds

- surgery

59
Q

sliding hiatal hernia (type 1)

A
  • GE junction slides in and out of chest through esophageal hiatus; assoc w GERD
60
Q

paraesophageal hernia (type 2)

A

-isolated stomach prolapsed through a weakened phrenoesophageal ligament but preservation of GE junction in abdomen

61
Q

type 3 hernia

A

combination of sliding and paraesophageal hernia

62
Q

type 4 hernia

A

herniation of other organs including colon and spleen

63
Q

imaging for hernias

A
  • plain chest xray to show presece of air fluid level in mediastinum or left chest
  • contrast upper GI w swallow is considered gold standard for id’ing adv hernies
64
Q

tx type 1 (sliding) hernia

A
  • asymp= observed if no risk for incarceration
  • surgery= esophagus shortened; Collis gastroplasty needed to reconstruct distal esophagus in addition to fundoplication procedure
65
Q

mc motility disorder affecting esophagus

A

achalasia= failure to relax; degenerative ds of myenteric (Auerbach’s) neural plexus which leads to denervation of the esophagus w resultant failure of relaxation of LES upon swallowing

66
Q

dx achalasia

A

barium swallow showing birds beak sign and manometric studies showing failure of LES to relax w swallowing

-endoscopy to rule out other possible causes

67
Q

tx achalasia

A
  • palliative since can’t be cured
  • initial=oral/sublingual nitrates and CCB to promote LES relaxation prior to meals (nitro and nifedipine)
  • endoscopic balloon dilation of LES
  • botox
  • Heller myotomy surgery: distal esophageal sphincter divided down to mucosa
68
Q

hypermotility ds of the esophagus include

A
  • diffuse esophageal spasm

- nutcracker esophagus

69
Q

tx hypermotility ds

A
  • nitrates and CCB

- extended esophageal myotomy from aortic arch level to stomach

70
Q

two types of esophageal diverticulum

A
  • pulsion= more common and assoc w esophageal motility dysfunction; located in prox/distal esophagus; “false diverticula” because lack full muscle layer
  • traction= midesoph and dev from local lymph node inflammatory rxn causing traction on esophageal wall; no assoc w esophageal dysmotility and considered true diverticula since all lays are involved
71
Q

Zenker’s diverticula

A

pulsion diverticula and occur at cervical esophagus; assoc w cricopharyngeal muscle dysfunction w failure to relax on swallowing causing prix obstruction

72
Q

where does zenkers diverticula occur

A

posteriorly, in the transition area of weakness between hypo pharynx and esophagus just above cricopharyngeus muscle

73
Q

assoc w regurg of recently swallowed food/pills, dysphagia, choking, or halitosis

A

zenkers

74
Q

dx of zenkers

A

barium swallow

75
Q

tx symptomatic zenkers

A

myotomy of cricopharyngeal muscle and diverticulectomy or diverticulopexy (inversion and fixation of diverticulu to promote drainage by gravity)

76
Q

tx for epiphrenic diverticula (distal third of esophagus)

A

left thoractomy, w diverticulum resection and repair, followed by stricture dilation or an extensive distal myectomy to prevent recurrence

77
Q

inflammatory paratracheal lymph node ds assoc w tuberculosis or histoplasmosis

A

traction diverticula- asymp and left alone

78
Q

mc benign neoplasm of esophagus

A

leiomyoma located in muscularis layer

79
Q

mc mucosal/submucosal lesions of esophagus

A

granular cell tumor and fibrovascular polyp

80
Q

tx asymp masses

A

observation because fine needle aspiration or bx don’t differentiate benign from malignant and manipulation of a cyst can result in iatrogenic infx

81
Q

dx of foreign body ingestion

A

X-ray of neck and chest w later views of neck to rule out cervical or mediastinal emphysema

ct scan

82
Q

why is barium study contraindicated with foreign body ingestion

A

high risk for aspiration and contrast delineation does not add to management of pt

83
Q

tx foreign body ingestion

A

-gentle extraction using a rigid esophagoscope under general anesthesia

84
Q

long term complication from ingestion of caustic material

A

stricture formation

85
Q

dx ingestion of caustic material

A

hx and pe then flex endoscopy within 48hrs

86
Q

tx of ingestion of caustic material

A
  • first priority is airway maintenance

- 2nd priority maintenance of esophageal patency

87
Q

tx if initial endoscopic eval of caustic material is 2nd or 3rd degree burns

A

percutaneous gastrostomy

88
Q

A 50-year-old man has the onset of chest pain shortly after he undergoes pneumatic dilatation of the lower esophageal sphincter to treat achalasia. An upper gastrointestinal (GI) water-soluble contrast study shows free extravasation of the contrast material at the level of the distal esophagus. The decision is made to take the patient to the operating room for Immediate repair. The best surgical incision to use is a(n)

A

The best exposure of the distal thoracic esophagus is through a left thoracotomy. Anatomically, the upper and middle thoracic esophagus runs along the right side of the aorta, but the distal esophagus swings anterior and then to the left of the aorta to exit into the abdomen. The esophagus is not accessible through a median sternotomy because it lies in the posterior mediastinum with the heart lying anterior to it. A right thoracotomy is used to expose the proximal and middle thoracic esophagus. A left thoracoabdominal incision is a large morbid incision and is not necessary for the repair of the perforation and to perform a myotomy.

89
Q

A 50-year-old woman comes to the clinic because of severe heartburn and regurgitation after meals and on lying down. She has been on long-term proton pump inhibitors with good relief of symptoms but now wants to have antireflux surgery. Her body mass index (BMI) Is 32.4. The preoperative study most useful in predicting symptomatic relief from antireflux surgery is a(n)

A

Evidence of abnormal acid reflux obtained from a positive 24-hour pH study is the best indicator for likely benefit of an antireflux procedure in gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). The other studies offered above can provide additional information on GERD but are not as sensitive in identifying potential surgical candidates for antireflux procedure. A barium swallow can identify a hiatal hernia, associated strictures, or shortened esophagus. A CT scan provides very little additional information but may demonstrate the presence of a hiatal hernia. Upper endoscopy is useful in identifying and monitoring progression of Barrett’s disease. Manometric study, when abnormal, is useful In Identifying motility dysfunction, which may affect surgical outcome.

90
Q

A 43-year-old woman is being considered for antireflux surgery. She has a long history of reflux symptoms that are now only partially controlled with lifestyle changes and a proton pump inhibitor. Upper endoscopy showed a small hiatal hernia and a short segment of intestinal metaplasia, but no evidence of dysplasia. She wants to know the possible advantage of the Toupet (partial) fundoplication as compared to the Nissen (full) fundoplication. The theoretical advantage for the Toupet fundoplication procedure is

A
  • dec postop symp of dysphagia and gas bloat

Because the Toupet procedure Is a partial fundoplication, there is less risk for developing dysphagia or from having difficulty burping as compared to a full encircling fundoplication. Both the Toupet and Nissen procedures can be performed laparoscopically with minimal morbidity and mortality. Because the Nissen is a full fundoplication, many proponents argue that it provides better protection from recurrent reflux. No antireflux procedure has been conclusively shown to prevent or reverse Barrett’s disease, and continued periodic endoscopic monitoring is recommended. Both the Toupet and Nissen procedures are usually performed through an abdominal incision.

91
Q

A 74-year-old man has a recent diagnosis of adenocarcinoma of the distal esophagus. He has a long history of reflux and Barrett’s esophagus, and a recent upper endoscopy and biopsies confirmed the diagnosis. A staging workup Is planned. What is the best study for assessing Τ (tumor Invasion depth)?

A

The endoscopic ultrasound is the best way to assess the depth of tumor invasion (T stage) and is also useful in identifying adjacent abnormal lymph node for fine needle aspiration (N stage). A barium swallow Is a good initial study in the workup of dysphagia and helps locate the level of the lesion. A CT scan may show gross invasion of adjacent structures but cannot differentiate tumor depth. Upper endoscopy is used to obtain biopsies to confirm carcinoma, but depth of invasion cannot be determined from the biopsy specimen. A PET scan is used to identify distant metastasis but does not have the resolution to determine tumor depth.

92
Q

A frail 85-year-old man underwent upper endoscopy with dilation and biopsy of a distal esophageal stricture. Concerned about a perforation, the endoscopist obtained a water-soluble contrast upper GI study that confirmed a perforation. Nonsurgical management Is acceptable if

A
  • upper GI study shows leak of contrast, which drains back into esophagus

Conservative management Is acceptable if contrast study shows a contained leak that drains back into the esophageal lumen. A new left pleural effusion is indicative of a more severe leak, which should not be managed conservatively. Obstructing lesions cannot be Ignored, as any obstruction will exacerbate the leak. Pain is indicative of excessive leak of GI contents into the mediastinum and pleura, which cannot be managed conservatively. Duration of perforation should not dictate whether surgical intervention is or is not pursued.

Surgery (21 decks)

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