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Cognition > Episodic memory > Flashcards

Episodic memory Flashcards

1
Q

Name a theory of encoding.

A

Levels of Processing theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

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2
Q

Recall is a copy of an event. True/false?

A

False - recall is a record of how you process an event.

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3
Q

Which levels can info be processed at?

A

Shallow - perceptual features

Deep - semantic features

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4
Q

What type of processing leads to better recall?

A

Deep processing

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5
Q

Craik & Tulving (1975) had pps read unrelated words and use different types of processing at study (encoding). What were these types of processing & what did they involve?

A

Shallow - upper/lower case judgement
Intermediate - rhyme judgement
Deep - sensible-or-not judgment

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6
Q

What did Craik & Tulving (1975) find when pps were given a surprise recognition test?

A

Pps who used deep processing at encoding had better recognition than those who used shallow/intermediate

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7
Q

Which researcher/s claimed that deep processing might not always be sufficient for episodic remembering?

A

Craik (2002)

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8
Q

Craik & Kester (1999) found that WHAT at encoding could impair memory performance?

A

Divided attention

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9
Q

What underlies the LoP effect?

A

Elaboration

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10
Q

What is elaboration?

A

Relating a to-be-remembered item to other info known about the item (other stored knowledge)

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11
Q

What does the elaboration hypothesis state?

A

We are more likely to remember something if we can relate it to other things we know about

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12
Q

What influences retention?

A

The amount of info we have about an item (number of things it is linked to in memory)

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13
Q

What type of processing did Craik & Tulving (1975) produces more elaboration?

A

Semantic processing produces more elaboration than non-semantic processing –> the item is more likely to be remembered

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14
Q

Memory for words that appeared in sentences judged to be sensible (______) was better than memory for words judged to be nonsensical (______)

A

Memory for words that appeared in sentences judged to be sensible (CONGRUENT) was better than memory for words judged to be nonsensical (INCONGRUENT)

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15
Q

What is the congruency effect?

A

Congruent info provides more elaboration because it ties items more closely to stored knowledge

We have more elaboration if we process the correct semantic info about the item during encoding –> remember the item better

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16
Q

Does memory depend more on elaboration or the distinctiveness of the encoded info?

A

Memory depends on distinctiveness of the encoded info (how well it stands out from other items in memory; a more distinctive memory trace) rather than elaboration

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17
Q

What type of processing does Hunt & Elliot (1980) say will produce more distinctive encoding?

A

Semantic processing

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18
Q

Recall of a distinctive sentence was better than recall of an elaborative sentence. Who found this?

A

Bransford et al. (1979)

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19
Q

Which are words more likely to be distinct in terms of - their meaning (semantic) or physical appearance (non-semantic)?

A

Words are more likely to be distinct in terms of meaning

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20
Q

Distinctiveness theory states that semantic encoding will always be better than non-semantic encoding. True/false?

A

False - semantic encoding isn’t always better than non-semantic encoding

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21
Q

Which researcher/s found evidence for the idea that semantic encoding is not always better than non-semantic?

A

Eyesenck (1979) - used a non-semantic task with unusual word pronunciations

Found that pps’ memory after the task was as good as that after a semantic task

However, he did conclude that semantic processing is USUALLY more likely to lead to distinctive processing

22
Q

Winograd (1981) compared distinctiveness & elaboration by having pps look at faces.

Pps either:

  1. Scanned each face (encoded features –> elaboration) + rated the most distinctive feature (distinctiveness)
  2. Rated the most distinctive feature (distinctiveness)

Pps then identified which faces they had seen before.

What did they find?

A

There was no difference in memory performance between the two groups.

  • distinctiveness is key (E+D was no better than just D)
  • having elaboration may increase the likelihood of detecting a distinctive feature
23
Q

What are some criticisms of the Levels of Processing theory?

A

X no objective way to measure depth

X assumes that processing levels are linear & go from one stage to the next (appearance>sound>meaning); research suggests different types of processing occur in parallel (overlap)

X don’t know whether we can fully suppress semantic processing (must be overlap)

X benefit of semantic processing depends of the nature of the test

24
Q

What is ‘organisation’?

A

Relationships between items on a list, actions in an event, etc.

25
Q

What type of material is better remembered - organised or unorganised?

A

Organised material is better remembered

26
Q

Pps were shown 20 words in 5 categories - presented randomly (unorganised) OR the categories were grouped together (organised)

Recall was highest for the organised group

Who did this study?

A

Bousfield (1953)

27
Q

What is the generation effect?

A

Info that you generate yourself is better remembered than info that is presented to you

28
Q

How did Glisky & Rabinowitz (1985) study the generation effect?

A

Pps generated single words from word fragments then tried to recognise the words in a test

Pps read words or generated their own words at BOTH encoding & retrieval

Found that words generated at encoding (study) were better recognised than words read at encoding (= standard generation effect)

Words generated at encoding AND test were better recognised than words generated at encoding & read at test

29
Q

What is the effect of transfer-appropriate processing

A

Recognition is best if the same fragments are generated at both study & test

30
Q

Morris, Bransford & Franks (1977) showed pps a list of words & had them use different types of encoding. What types of encoding did they use & what was involved?

A

Semantic - generated a word associated with a word on the list
Phonological - generated a word that rhymed with a word on the list

31
Q

Morris, Bransford & Franks (1977) then show pps a new list of words (some were familiar, from the previous list) & gave them 2 types of recognition test, what were the tests?

A

Standard test - saw a list of words that had the previously-studied words + new words); pps had to select words they had seen before
Rhyme test - saw a list of words that rhymed with previously-studied words + new words; pps had to select words that rhymed with words they had seen before

32
Q

What did Morris, Bransford & Franks (1977) find?

A

For the standard recognition test, performance was better after semantic processing

For the rhyme recognition test, performance was better after phonological processing

–> performance is best if the type of processing used at encoding matches the type of processing required at test

33
Q

What is the self-reference effect?

A

A tendency to encode info differently depending on the level in which the self is implicated in the info (how well it relates to you)

34
Q

What type of info is better remember - info that is personally relevant or personally irrelevant?

A

Personally relevant info is better remembered

35
Q

Pps were shown adjectives & used one type of encoding, either…

Non-semantic - “does it rhyme with…?”
Semantic - “does it mean the same as…?”

Pps rated how descriptive each word was of themselves.

Who did this study?
What did they find?

A

Rogers, Kuiper & Kirker (1977)

Found that pps recalled more self-rated than semantically-encoded words

–> self-relevance lead to better processing (pps allocated more attention to self-relevant info)

36
Q

Why might retrieval fail?

A

Storage failure

  • decay
  • interference
37
Q

What is retrieval failure?

A

When info is present in memory but cannot be recalled

38
Q

What is decay?

A

Memories fade over time
The older the memory trace, the more likely it will be forgotten
Occurrence of other events & processing of new info at that time can cause storage failure (interference)

39
Q

What is interference?

A

When new info overwrites/replaces old info

40
Q

Pps learnt nonsense syllables & then slept or stayed awake for a period of time. Who did this study & what did they find?

A

Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924) found that memory for the nonsense syllables was better for the group who slept.

41
Q

Why is being asleep/staying awake better for memory consolidation?

A

Being awake exposes the memory to more interference

Sleep protects memories from interference & helps consolidation

42
Q

What is consolidation?

A

New memories become established/consolidated in the hippocampus

43
Q

Which area of the brain are new memories consolidated/established?

A

The hippocampus

44
Q

Bruce & Pihl (1997) found what WHAT might help memory?

A

Memory may be enhanced when alcohol is consumed shortly after the memory is formed because it disrupts encoding of new memories which would impair consolidation

45
Q

What is retrieval failure?

A

When info is present in memory but can’t be recalled

46
Q

In relation to retrieval, what does successful memory performance depend on?

A

Info stored in LTM stays there permanently & so is available, but successful performance also depends on ACCESSIBILITY (= the degree to which the info can be retrieved)

47
Q

Why might retrieval cues help?

A

Forgetting may occur because items are stored (available) but inaccessible - items may be recalled if cues are used

48
Q

Pps were shown words in categories, then retrieved the words using free recall OR cued recall.

Recall was higher with cued recall.

Who did this study & what did they conclude?

A

Tulving & Pearlstone (1966)

A person’s ability to recall info depends on cues present at retrieval.

49
Q

How can we make medical instructions more memorable?

A

Ley (1988) found that patients forgot 50% of the info they were given by their doctor; there was a high correlation between the amount of info they recalled &…

  • their understanding of the info
  • satisfaction with their doctor
  • compliance
  • recovery from illness

Ley (1988) asked doctors to change the way they presented the info –> explicitly categorising the way info was presented nearly doubled patients’ recall

50
Q

How can mnemonic techniques aid memory?

A

‘One is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree’

  • ‘bottle’ → bun
  • ‘table’ → shoe

Use mental imagery to associate the first to-be-remembered item with a bun, shoe, etc.

During recall, we use mneumonic → think of ‘one’ → bun → ‘bottle’ = acts as a retrieval cue

Morris & Reid (1970) found that recall doubled when pps used this mnemonic

51
Q

Why might testing yourself aid memory?

A

Assesses what you do/don’t know
Enhances later retention
Practicing retrieving enhances the accessibility of the info –> more likely to remember it

52
Q

What did Roediger & Karpicke (2006) find about the effect of being tested on memory performance?

A

Students who are tested showed more retention of the material than those just given further study

Cognition (12 decks)

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