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HPP 2 > Endocrine system & Diabetes > Flashcards

Endocrine system & Diabetes Flashcards

1
Q

Which two systems regulate the function of the body?

A

nervous system and endocrine system

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2
Q

Nervous system

A

chemical and electrical communication; neurotransmitters

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3
Q

Endocrine system

A

chemical communication; hormones

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4
Q

Hormone

A

a chemical substance that is secreted into the internal body fluids by one cell or group of cells and has a physiological effect on other cells of the body

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5
Q

Local hormones

A

paracrine; exocrine glands
utilize ducts
local effects

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6
Q

Amylase

A

break down starch into glucose

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7
Q

Proteases

A

break down protein into amino acids

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8
Q

Lipases

A

Break down fats/triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids

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9
Q

Amino acids and glycerol help to form?

A

glucose

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10
Q

Fatty acids can make ATP through

A

Beta oxidation reactions

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11
Q

RNAses

A

break down RNA into nucleotides

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12
Q

DNAses

A

break down DNA into nucleotides

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13
Q

General Hormones

A

endocrine glands; released into the blood, general broad effects

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14
Q

Steroid hormones

A

made from cholesterol
includes estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, cortisol, and aldosterone

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15
Q

What should you do to prevent hormone exposure?

A

wear gloves, masks and lab coats

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16
Q

Hormone Derivatives of Tyrosine

A

epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine

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17
Q

Protein hormones

A

FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH, Prolactin and GH

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18
Q

Peptide hormones

A

ADH and oxytocin

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19
Q

Polypeptide hormones

A

insulin, glucagon, parahormone, parathyroid hormone

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20
Q

Protein and peptide hormones administration, half life, and susceptibility

A

admin- injection
half-life- short
susceptibility- antigenic attack resulting in inactivation

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21
Q

Peptide hormones stored as?

A

preprohormones

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22
Q

Where are hormones activated?

A

Golgi apparatus

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23
Q

Physiological effects of hormones occurs at ?

A

1 pg to 1 ng per deciliter of blood

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24
Q

Why are proteins important for steroid hormones in the blood?

A

keeps hormones from accumulating in fat tissues
increases the half-life

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25
Q

When a hormone is bound to a blood protein it is? When it is unbound?

A

bound- inactive
unbound- active

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26
Q

Membrane Hormone Receptors

A

GPCRs
hydrophilic

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27
Q

Cytoplasmic and Nuclear hormone receptors

A

steroid based hormones
cholesterol based
lipophilic

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28
Q

Why do hydrophilic hormones usually have their receptors bound to the plasma membrane?

A

can’t cross lipid bilayer
need helper proteins or enzymes

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29
Q

Why are hydrophobic hormone receptors located in the cytoplasm and nucleus?

A

lipophilic
can easily transverse plasma and nuclear membranes

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30
Q

What does CREB stand for?

A

Cyclic AMP response element binding protein

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31
Q

Cyclic-AMP dependent pathway

A
  1. Hormone-receptor binding activates a Gprotein (Gi or Gs)
  2. G protein activates adenylyl cyclase
  3. adenylyl cyclase produces cAMP
  4. cAMP activates protein kinases
  5. protein kinases phosphoryate enzymes. This activates some enzymes and deactivates others
  6. Activated enzymes catalyze metabolic reactions with a wide range of possible effects on the cell
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32
Q

Common hormones of Cyclic-AMP dependent Pathway

A

ACTH
FSH
LH
PTH
TSH
Glucagon
Calcitonin
Catecholamines

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33
Q

Phosphoinositide Hydrolysis Pathway

A
  1. Hydrophilic hormone binds to Gq receptor
  2. Activated Gprotein binds to PLC, which splits PIP2 into IP3 and DAG
  3. DAG stimulates PKC which stimulates cell growth
  4. IP3 binds to Calcium channels and opens them, increasing intracellular concentration
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34
Q

Common Hormones in the Phosphoinositide Hydrolysis Pathway

A

ADH
TRH
OT
LHRH
Catecholamines

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35
Q

Why do hormone receptors decrease when hormone exposure is chronic?

A

protective mechanism against too much stimulation
tolerance

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36
Q

If tolerance occurs what might you have to do?

A

increase the dose
change to a different drug class

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37
Q

Agonist

A

activate receptors
causes receptors to down-regulate over time

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38
Q

Antagonists

A

block receptors
will cause receptors to up-regulate overtime

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39
Q

What are some ways to prevent undesired effects from agonists?

A

lower drug dose
minimize length of drug therapy
switch drug therapy

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40
Q

What are some ways to prevent undesired effects from antagonists?

A

use as needed
use minimum amount
switch drug classes

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41
Q

Hormone clearance

A

taken up and degraded by liver and kidneys, then excreted in bile or urine

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42
Q

Metabolic clearance rate (MCR)

A

rate of hormone removal
can be affected by disease, other drugs, and age

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43
Q

How would MCR change in the elderly? What would you have to do to the dose?

A

lower liver and renal function
increased half life of drugs
may have to lower the dose

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44
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

called the hypophysis, 1 cm, 0.5-1g

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45
Q

What does the the anterior pituitary gland secrete?

A
  1. growth hormone
  2. adrenocorticotropin hormone
  3. thyroid-stimulating hormone
  4. prolactin
  5. follicle-stimulating hormone
  6. luteinizing hormone
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46
Q

What does the posterior pituitary gland secrete?

A

antidiuretic hormone
oxytocin

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47
Q

Somatotrope

A

cell type in anterior pituitary gland
growth hormone, stain with acid dyes, acidophilus tumors

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48
Q

Corticotropes

A

cell type in anterior pituitary gland
secretes adrenocorticotropin hormone

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49
Q

Thyrotropes

A

cell type in anterior pituitary gland
secretes thyroid stimulating hormone

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50
Q

Gonadotropes

A

cell type in the anterior pituitary gland
secretes lutenizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone

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51
Q

Lactotropes

A

cell type in anterior pituitary gland
secretes prolactin

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52
Q

cells that secrete posterior pituitary hormones

A

not located in the posterior pituitary
large neurons located in the hypothalamus

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53
Q

Secretion by the pituitary gland is controlled by ?

A
  1. hormones: hypothalamic releasing/inhibitory factors— anterior
  2. nerve signals — posterior
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54
Q

Oxytocin causes smooth muscle to?

A

contract

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55
Q

Antidiuretic hormone

A

water retention, increased BP

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56
Q

Which electrolytes does the hypothalamus collect?

A

sodium, potassium, and hydrogen

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57
Q

Which nutrients does the hypothalamus collect?

A

glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide

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58
Q

In feedback inhibition, what do the hormones from the peripheral endocrine gland turn off?

A

the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland

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59
Q

Thyrotropic releasing hormone

A

triggered by low body temp
stimulates pituitary gland to release TSH
targets thyroid gland
grows the thyroid, secretes thyroid hormone, and has metabolic effects

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60
Q

Corticotropic releasing hormone

A

triggered by stress
stimulates pituitary gland to release ACTH
targets adrenal gland
simulates adrenal hormones aldosterone, cortisol, and weak androgens
regulates glucose, fat, and protein metabolism

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61
Q

Growth hormone releasing hormone

A

triggered by growth, puberty, or tissue injury
stimulates pituitary gland to release GH
targets all cells
causes widespread tissue growth

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62
Q

Gonadotropin releasing hormone

A

triggered by puberty
stimulates pituitary gland to release FSH and LH
targets gonads
causes egg and sperm production, ovulation, pregnancy, testosterone secretion

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63
Q

Dopamine

A

inhibits pituitary gland from releasing prolactin which targets the breast causing milk synthesis, testes more sensitive to LH

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64
Q

Pregnancy inhibits? increases?

A

dopamine
prolactin

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65
Q

How much ATP does glucose make?

A

30-32

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66
Q

glycogenesis

A

increases glycogen in the body
drops blood glucose levels

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67
Q

glycogenolysis

A

decreases glycogen
increases blood glucose levels

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68
Q

Fat source of energy

A

triglycerides

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69
Q

cholesterol

A

makes steroids and form plasma membranes

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70
Q

Phospholipids

A

form plasma membrane and create protective barriers

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71
Q

lipolysis

A

breakdown of triglycerides
increase in glycerol, fatty acids, and ATP

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72
Q

lipogenesis

A

formation of triglycerides
reduces glycerol and fatty acids

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73
Q

Proteolysis

A

breakdown of protein
amino acids

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74
Q

growth hormone functions

A

tissue growth and cellular proliferation
makes intermediates such as somatomedins or insulin-like growth factors
make ATP for IGF-1

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75
Q

IGF-1 hormone

A

increases bone length
stimulates osteoblasts
induces protein synthesis

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76
Q

Mechanisms for increased rate of protein synthesis

A
  1. increase transcription
  2. increase translation
  3. increase amino acid uptake into the cell
  4. decrease proteolysis
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77
Q

Humatrope, Norditropin, Neurotropin and Genotropin are all used in ?

A

children’s hormone replacement therapy

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78
Q

What does growth hormone not use as an energy source?

A

proteins and carbohydrates

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79
Q

If too much growth hormone is being made what could happen?

A

increase risk of cancer, atherosclerosis, and hyperglycemia

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80
Q

Is growth hormone tightly or loosely bond to blood proteins?

A

loosely

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81
Q

Factors for Growth Hormone secretion

A

starvation
hypoglycemia
exercise
excitement
trauma
sleep

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82
Q

What regulates growth hormone secretion?

A

GHRH and somatostatin

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83
Q

Decreased levels of growth hormone secretion can lead to ?

A

dwarfism
tumors causing hyposecretion of GH
thrombosis of the pituitary blood vessels
aging

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84
Q

Abnormal growth hormone secretion symptoms

A

hypothyroidism
decreased glucocorticoids
decreased gonadotropins

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85
Q

increased levels of growth hormone can lead to ?

A

giantism
acromegaly
cancer

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86
Q

The supraoptic nucleus secretes?

A

ADH

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87
Q

The paraventricular nucleus secretes?

A

oxytocin

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88
Q

Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)

A

used for water retention and to increase blood pressure

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89
Q

When blood becomes too concentrated what do ADH levels do?

A

increase

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90
Q

Stretch receptors

A

sense changes in blood pressure and volume
in heart and arteries

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91
Q

Functions of oxytocin

A

causes contraction of the uterus
involved in milk ejection

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92
Q

Where is the thyroid gland?

A

immediately below the larynx and anterior to the trachea
butterfly shape

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93
Q

what does the thyroid gland secrete ?

A

Triiodothyronine
Thyroxine
Calcitonin

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94
Q

Major constituent of the colloid?

A

thyroglobulin

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95
Q

How much iodine does someone need to ingest to have normal formation of thyroxine?

A

150 micrograms

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96
Q

isotope 131 I

A

iodotrope therapeutic
mCi
destroys the gland

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97
Q

isotope 123 I

A

microCi
used for diagnostic purposes

98
Q

T3 and T4 formation

A
  1. formation and secretion of thyroglobulin by the thyroid cells
  2. oxidation of the iodide ion by peroxidase
  3. iodination of tyrosine and formation of thyroid hormones
  4. coupling of organified thyroglobulin molecules to form T3 and T4
  5. storage of thyroglobulin
  6. release of T3 and T4
99
Q

When T4 is bound to albumin, what kind of bond is it and is albumin active?

A

tight bond
not active

100
Q

When T3 is bound to albumin, what kind of bond is it and is albumin active?

A

loose bond
active

101
Q

Why is the release of thyroxine slow? How slow?

A

tight binding to plasma proteins
6 days

102
Q

Why is triiodothyronine rapidly released? How fast?

A

not tightly bound to plasma proteins
1 day

103
Q

T3 acting at the thyroid hormone causes what of genes containing thyroid response elements?

A

derepression
activates transcription of genes
increases the MLCK and LDL receptors

104
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact the mitochondria?

A

increases rate of ATP formation
excess- increase
deficient- decrease

105
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact Na/K ATPase?

A

increase neuronal activity
increase in the transport of Na and K through the cell membrane

106
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact growth?

A

complements effects of growth hormone; increases bone metabolism/growth

107
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact carbohydrate metabolism?

A

increases absorption from the GI tract and this glucose is converted into ATP by increases in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis

too much could cause cardiomyopathies and hyperglycemia

108
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact fat metabolism?

A

increases the mobilization of fats form tissues, therefore it increases plasma levels of free fatty acids

too much- atherosclerosis

too little- decrease in ATP and energy

109
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact plasma and liver fats?

A

decrease in cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides
increases plasma free fatty acids

110
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact vitamin metabolism?

A

excess- vitamin deficiencies
deficient- vitamin excess

111
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact basal metabolic rate?

A

increase- increase rate by 60-100% above normal

decrease- decrease rates to about 50%

112
Q

Dose range of thyroid hormone?

A

25-300 mg

113
Q

Does thyroid hormone have abuse potential?

A

yes

114
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact body weight?

A

excess- decreases weight in most
deficiencies- increase weight

115
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact cardiovasculature?

A

increase blood flow, heart rate, respiration
excess- positive chronotropic and inotropic response
deficient- negative chronotropic and inotropoic response

116
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact gastrointestinal tract?

A

increases neuronal firing and this increases GI motility and promotes LDL secretion into the feces

117
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact the central nervous system?

A

increases neuronal firing and this increases CNS functioning
excess- extreme nervousness, psychoneurotic tendencies, paranoia, anxiety disorders, extreme worry
deficient: depression; dulled thinking;; difficulty concentrating

118
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact the muscles?

A

increases neuronal firing and this increases neuronal action at the neuromuscular junction

119
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact sleep?

A

regulates it
excess-cannot sleep so it results in constant fatigue
deficient- extreme somnolence/excessive sleepiness

120
Q

How do thyroid hormones impact other endocrine glands?

A

excess- may increase rate of glucose metabolism, increase bone turnover, osteoporosis

121
Q

Hyperthyroidism

A

autoimmune disease
makes thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin, an antibody that mimics the actions of TSH

122
Q

Exopthalmos

A

extreme protrusion of the eyeballs

123
Q

In Graves’ disease what do T4/T3 levels look like? TSH? TSI? Is there a goiter?

A

T4/T3- increase
TSH- decrease
(+) TSI
Goiter- yes

124
Q

In Adenoma what does T4/T3 levels look like? TSH? TSI? Is there a goiter

A

T4/T3- increase
TSH- decrease
(-) TSI
Goiter- no

125
Q

Hypothyroidism

A

deficiency in thyroid hormone; low T4, T3

126
Q

Congenital Hypothyroidism

A

no thyroid gland at birth
symptoms include tongue swelling and yellowing and course skin
need replacement therapy within 6-8 weeks

127
Q

Endemic Colloid Goiter

A

iodine deficiency related to where you live, life condition

128
Q

Idiopathic Non-endemic goiter

A

hyposecreting tumor of the thyroid
unknown origin that’s not related to lifestyle

129
Q

Hashimoto’s thyroiditis

A

autoimmune disease
antibody prevents T4, T3 formation and TSHr activation

130
Q

How does PTH impact calcium absorption?

A

It increases its concentration in blood

131
Q

How does Vit. D impact calcium absorption?

A

it increases calcium concentration in blood
leads to effects in GI tract

132
Q

How does calcitonin impact calcium absorption?

A

decreases calcium concentration in blood

133
Q

What percentage of calcium is lost in feces?

A

90%

134
Q

What is the normal calcium concentration in plasma?

A

9-9.2 mg/dl

135
Q

What are the 3 forms of calcium?

A

Ca^2+ (50% ionized state, active)
CaPO4 salts (inactive)
Hydroxyapatite (inactive)

136
Q

How long of full body exposure to sunlight gives enough Vitamin D?

A

15 minutes

137
Q

How does Vitamin D use the bone to impact Calcium absorption?

A

increases calcium absorption in blood through osteoblasts

138
Q

How does Vitamin D use the kidneys to impact Calcium absorption?

A

increase calcium concentration in blood

139
Q

How does Vitamin D use the GI tract to impact Calcium absorption?

A

increase calcium absorption by regulating transporters

140
Q

Where does inhibition of PTH occur?

A

on the PTH gland once homeostasis is achieved

141
Q

How long can Vit D3 be stored in the liver?

A

for months

142
Q

Why is there such tight regulation over Vit. D3?

A

need to conserve it
some may not have access to foods rich in Vit. D3 or live in areas rich in sunlight

143
Q

What does the increase in calcitriol do to calcium and phosphate levels and how does this occur?

A

increases calcium absorption by 40-60%
upregulation of calcium-phosphate cotransporters

144
Q

When calcium falls below 9mg/dl what increases?

A

calcitriol

145
Q

Hypocalcemia

A

excessive muscle contraction
impacts sodium and calcium counter transporter
low driving force leads to sodium buildup inside the cell

146
Q

Hypercalcemia

A

depressed motor activity
huge driving force causes sodium decrease in cell resulting in a decrease in neuronal activity

147
Q

High calcium binds with phosphate to form salts that can ppt into which 3 places?

A

joints causing pain
aveoli causing respiratory issues
kidneys causing renal failure

148
Q

organic matrix of bone

A

95% collagen
5% gelatinous ground substance
secreted by osteoblasts and contribute to tensile strength

149
Q

bone salts

A

calcium and phosphate
hydroxyapatite

150
Q

Mechanism of bone calcification

A
  1. osteoblasts secrete collagen
  2. collagen polymerizes and makes osteoids
  3. osteoblasts get trapped in collagen and become osteocytes
  4. calcium salt ppt into bone
  5. salts are converted to hydroxyapatite
151
Q

Osteoclasts

A

break down bone

152
Q

osteoblasts

A

form bone

153
Q

Why does bone remodel?

A

adjust to lifestyle/environment

154
Q

Rate of bone deposition and fracture repair is enhanced by?

A

bone stress
push, pull, and hold exercises are beneficial

155
Q

Blood alkaline phosphatase levels indicate?

A

rate of bone deposition/ extent of healing

156
Q

The thyroid gland secretes what to decrease blood calcium concentration?

A

calcitonin

157
Q

PTH activates osteoclasts. What happens in the rapid phase?

A

calcium increases in blood
secretion of calcium decreases in kidney
phosphate concentration in blood decreases

158
Q

PTH activates osteoclasts. What happens in the slow phase?

A

new osteoclasts are formed

159
Q

When calcium levels increase do the levels of PTH change?

A

no

160
Q

calcitonin

A

decreases calcium concentration in blood
(-) osteoclasts, decrease bone resorption
treats osteoporosis

161
Q

As calcium levels increase what does calcitonin do?

A

increase

162
Q

Hypoparathyrodism

A

decr PTH
symptoms: tetany, spasm of diaphragm, breathing difficulties

163
Q

Hyperparathyroidism

A

increase PTH, increase calcium
symptoms: bone pain, hypercalcemia, decrease in neuronal firing, decrease in CNS function, breathing and muscle function

164
Q

Rickets

A

in kids, Vit. D. and calcium deficiency
increase bone breakdown
Symptoms: tetany, respiratory depression, bowed legs, weak bones
Treatment: Vit. D; sun, Calcium PO

165
Q

Osteoporosis

A

brittle bones; usually occurs in the elderly
can lead to pulmonary hypertension and increased thoracic pressure

166
Q

Causes of Osteoporosis

A

lack of physical stress
inactive lifestyle
malnutrition
menopause
aging
cushing’s disease
hyperthyroidism
lifestyle

167
Q

What does the adrenal medulla secrete?

A

epinephrine

168
Q

What layer of the adrenal cortex secretes aldosterone?

A

zona glomerulosa

169
Q

Which layers of the adrenal cortex secrete cortisol and androgens?

A

zona fasciculata
zona reticularis

170
Q

Adrenocortical horomones are steroid compounds made from?

A

cholesterol

171
Q

What are the precursors of androgens, cortisol and aldosterone?

A

cholesterol
pregnenolone
progesterone

172
Q

Aldosterone Functions

A

maintain electrolyte and water balance
half life: 30 min

increases sodium absorption, potassium and hydrogen secretion into kidneys and small intestine

increase blood volume, blood pressure, blood pH and impacts neuronal function

173
Q

What can excess aldosterone cause?

A

hypokalemia
muscle weakness
alkalosis

174
Q

What can too little aldosterone cause?

A

hyperkalemia
cardiac toxicity
acidosis

175
Q

When renal failure leads to hyperkalemia what follows?

A

CRH->ACTH->Aldosterone
increase potassium secretion into nephron
reduce potassium

176
Q

When hypotension leads to increased activity of renin what follows?

A

CRH-> ACTH -> Aldosterone
increased sodium, water, and blood pressure

177
Q

When renal failure leads to hyponatremia what follows?

A

increase CRH -> ACTH ->aldosterone
increased sodium

178
Q

When a hyposecreting tumor develops in the anterior pituitary gland what follows?

A

increased ACTH
increased cortisol, aldosterone, weak androgens
hyperglycemia, hypertension, vivilization of body

179
Q

What are the functions of glucocorticoids?

A

regulate inflammation and glucose concentration

180
Q

Proteolysis and lipolysis stimulates?

A

gluconeogenesis

181
Q

Excess cortisol and its impact on carbohydrate metabolism results in?

A

hyperglycemia -> insulin release -> insulin receptors desensitize -> T2D

182
Q

Deficient cortisol and its impact on carbohydrate metabolism results in?

A

hypoglycemia -> fatigue/ lethargy

183
Q

Excess cortisol and its impact on protein metabolism results in?

A

increase in proteolysis -> muscle deterioration -> lethargy/ mvmt issues/ congestive heart failure

184
Q

Excess cortisol and its impact on fat metabolism results in?

A

increase fatty acids -> metabolization -> atherosclerosis, steatosis, accumulate in face, upper chest and back

185
Q

Functions of cortisol in stress and inflammation

A

trauma
infection
intense heat/cold
sympathomimetic drugs
surgery
necrotizing substances
restraining
debilitating disease

186
Q

5 steps to inflammation

A
  1. release of chemicals from damaged cells
  2. increased blood flow to damage area
  3. leakage of plasma out of capillaries into tissue
  4. infiltration of damaged area by leukocytes
  5. ingrowth of fibrous tissue = healing
187
Q

Cortisol effects on transplantation surgeries

A

prevent rejection through immunosuppression

188
Q

How does cortisol impact blood cells?

A

(+) RBC
(-) WBC

189
Q

How does cortisol impact immunity in infectious diseases?

A

low/ susceptible to illness/ infection

190
Q

Adrenal glands can secrete

A

weak androgens
dehydroepiandrosterone
adrostenedione
stimulate estrogen production

191
Q

Hypoadrenalism (Addison’s disease)

A

vortices of adrenal glands fail to produce aldosterone and glucocorticoids
most likely due to an autoimmune disease

192
Q

Mineralocorticoid deficiency

A

aldosterone
hypertension, hyperkalemia, high blood H+

193
Q

Glucocorticoid deficiency

A

cortisol
hypoglycemia -> fatigue

194
Q

Describe melanin pigmentation process

A
  1. autoimmune disorder attack decreases cortisol and aldosterone
  2. CRH increases
  3. ACTH increase
  4. MSH increases
195
Q

Melanin Pigmentation Treatment

A

Replacement therapy
cortisol/glucorticoid and aldosterone/ mineralocorticoid

196
Q

Addisonian Crisis

A

surgery -> trauma/ stressors to body -> their dose may have to increase by 10-25x their normal dose; to prevent cardiovascular collapse

197
Q

Hyperadrenalism

A

cushing’s diseases

tumor of the adrenal glands causing excessive amounts of the hormones to be produced

rounding of face; puffiness to upper chest

198
Q

Primary Aldosteronism

A

hypersecreting tumor of the zona glomerulosa
increase aldosterone, sodium
decreased potassium and H^+

199
Q

Adreongenital system

A

increase in androgens and estrogen

200
Q

acini

A

part of the pancreas that secretes digestive juices

201
Q

Trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidase

A

in pancreas; digests proteins

202
Q

What would happen if you had an inflammation of the pancreas?

A

prevents enzyme release; need supplements

203
Q

Islets of Langerhan (alpha)

A

pancreatic cells that secrete glucagon
increase [glucose] in blood

204
Q

Islets of Langerhan (Beta)

A

secrete insulin and amylin
decrease [glucose] in blood

205
Q

Islets of Langerhan (Delta)

A

secrete somatostatin
inhibits glucagon and insulin release, and inhibits intestinal motility

206
Q

C peptide levels are proportional to

A

active insulin levels

207
Q

Pro-insulin

A

inactive form of insulin

208
Q

What are 3 main process that decrease [glucose] in blood?

A

protein synthesis
lipogenesis
glycogenesis

209
Q

Does insulin increase or decrease blood glucose levels?

A

decrease

210
Q

Insulin brings glucose into the cell to be converted to ?

A

ATP or triglycerides

211
Q

Insulin stores energy in the forms of?

A

glycogen
triglycerides
proteins

212
Q

phosphorylase B kinase

A

enzyme in glycogenolysis
makes glucose
inhibited by insulin

213
Q

glycogen synthase

A

enzyme involved in glycogenesis
makes glycogen
stimulated by insulin

214
Q

Diabetes Mellitus 1

A

lack of insulin
fat can’t be stored so it undergoes extensive metabolism

215
Q

Increases in fatty acids result in the formation of?

A

keto acids and acetoacetic acid

216
Q

Consequences of Increased Fatty Acids

A

cause blood pH to decrease
increase risk of acid optic coma
increase risk of atherosclerosis

217
Q

Protein synthesis increases the presence of?

A

insulin

218
Q

Mechanisms by which insulin increases protein synthesis

A

increase gene transcription DNA -> mRNA
increase protein translation mRNA -> protein
increased amino acid transport into the cell
decreased proteolysis
decreased amino acid availability for gluconeogenesis

219
Q

In diabetes mellitus one, an increase in protein metabolism occurs which causes>

A

skeletal muscle breakdown -> movement impairment/lethargy/ fatigue

cardiac muscle breakdown -> cardiac arrest

220
Q

How fast is the release of glucose from the liver between meals?

A

slow

221
Q

Rapid insulin release

A

occurs within 5 minutes due to the release of preformed insulin

222
Q

Delayed insulin release

A

occurs 15 min to 3 hours due to the synthesis of new insulin

223
Q

Why does an increase in digestion trigger an insulin release?

A

anticipating a rise in glucose

224
Q

Why do the hormones glucagon, GH, cortisol, progesterone, estrogen and epinephrine also trigger insulin release?

A

all increase [glucose] in blood

225
Q

With high glucose levels insulin x, lipolysis y, and lipogenesis z.

A

x- increase
y- decrease
z- increase

226
Q

Glucagon ffects on Glucose metabolism

A

increase [glucose] in blood
causes glycogen breakdown; makes phosphorylase B Kinase

227
Q

How would hypoglycemia effect glucagon levels and [glucose] in blood?

A

increase

228
Q

How would decreased levels of amino acids impact glucagon levels, [amino acid] in blood, and [glucose]

A

increase

229
Q

Exercise induces what type of glycemic?

A

hypoglycemia

230
Q

Somatostatin

A

hormone release from hypothalamus; decreases GH secretion from anterior pituitary gland
released from delta cells
inhibits insulin release
regulates absorption of nutrients to prevent glucose spikes

231
Q

Importance of blood glucose regulation

A

only nutrient used by brain, retina, and gonads
hyperglycemia could result in cellular/overall dehydration

232
Q

diabetes mellitus

A

disease characterized by loss of insulin secretion/ loss of insulin receptor sensitivity

233
Q

Type 1 diabetes mellitus

A

lack of insulin secretion from beta cells of the islets of langerhan

234
Q

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

A

lack of insulin sensitivity in the tissues

235
Q

What factors are involved in the development of diabetes

A

hereditary
autoimmune
obesity

236
Q

pathological physiology of diabetes

A

decreased utilization of glucose
increased fat mobilization
protein depletion
cellular and overall dehydration

237
Q

Polyuria

A

excessive urination

238
Q

Polydipsia

A

extreme thirst

239
Q

polyphasic

A

increased eating

240
Q

Diagnosis of diabetes mellitus

A

urinary sugar
fasting blood glucose levels
glucose tolerance test
acetone breath

241
Q

Hyperinsulinism

A

tumor in pancreas; over production of insulin
diagnose by increase in C peptide or low glucose levels
could lead to insulin shock/hypoglycemia

242
Q

Hyperinsulinism Treatment

A

remove tumor
IV glucose
glucagon

HPP 2 (11 decks)

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