En Route Flashcards
Define MEA
Minimum En Route Altitude
The lowest published altitude between radio fixes that ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage and meets obstacle clearance requirements
Define MOCA
Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude
The lowest published altitude between radio fixes on VOR airways, off-airways routes, or route segments that meets obstacle clearance requirements and ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage only within 25 SM (22 NM) of a VOR
Define MCA
Minimum Crossing Altitude
Lowest altitude at certain fixes at which AC must cross when proceeding in the direction of a higher MEA
Define MRA
Minimum Reception Altitude
The lowest altitude at which an intersection can be determined
Define MAA
Maximum Authorized Altitude
Maximum usable altitude or flight level for an airspace structure or a route segment that ensures adequate reception of navigation aid signals
Define OROCA
Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude
Provides obstruction clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in non-mountainous terrain areas, and a 2,000-foot buffer in designated mountainous areas within the US. This altitude might not provide signal coverage from ground-based NAVAIDs, ATC radar, or comms coverage.
If no applicable minimum altitude is prescribed (no MEA or MOCA), what minimum altitudes apply for IFR ops?
A. Mountainous terrain: At least 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 NM from the course to be flown. Part 95 designates the location of mountainous terrain
B. Other than mountainous terrain: At least 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 NM from the course to be flown
What cruising altitudes shall be maintained while operating under IFR in controlled airspace (Class A, B, C, D, or E)? In uncontrolled airspace (Class G)?
IFR flights within controlled airspace shall maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by ATC. In uncontrolled airspace, altitude is selected based on magnetic course flown.
A. Below 18,000 feet MSL:
- 0-179 degrees: Odd thousand MSL - 180-359 degrees: Even thousand MSL
B. 18,000 feet up to but not including 29,000 feet MSL:
- 0-179 degrees: Odd flight levels - 180-359 degrees: Even flight levels
What procedures are applicable concerning courses to be flown when operating IFR?
Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no one may operate an AC in controlled airspace under IFR except on an air traffic route, along the centerline of that airway, or on any other route along the direct course between the NAVAIDs or fixes defining the route. However, this does not prohibit maneuvering the AC to pass well clear of other air traffic, or maneuvering in VFR conditions to clear the intended flight path both before and during climb or decent
On a direct flight not flown on radials or courses of established airways or routes, what points serve as compulsory reporting points?
For flights along the direct route, regardless of the altitude or flight level being flown, including flights operating IAW an ATC clearance specifying “VFR-On-Top”, pilots must report over each reporting point used in the flight plan to define the route of flight.
What are “unpublished” RNAV routes?
Direct routes based on area navigation capability, between waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or offsets from established routes/airways at a specified distance and direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all unpublished RNAV routes, except for GNSS-equipped AC cleared via filed published waypoints recallable from the AC’s navigation database.
What reports should be made to ATC without a specific request (radar or non-radar)?
Missed approach: Request clearance for specific action, such as another approach, alternate, etc.
Airspeed change; change in average KTAS at cruising altitude of 5%/10 knots, whichever is greater
Reaching a holding fix or point to which cleared; report time and altitude or flight level
Vacating any previously assigned altitude or flight level
ETA change when previous estimate in excess of 2 minutes (non-radar)
Leaving assigned holding fix or point
Outer marker inbound or fix used in lieu of OM (non-radar)
Unforecast weather
Safety of flight comprimised
VFR on Top, when any altitude change is made
Final approach fix inbound (non-radar)
Radio malfunction
Compulsory reporting points (non-radar)
500 FPM - unable to climb/descend 500 FPM
What reporting requirements are required by ATC when not in radar contact?
A. When leaving final approach fix inbound on the final (non-precision) approach, or when leaving the OM (or fix used in lieu of the OM) inbound on final (precision) approach.
B. A corrected estimate at anytime it becomes apparent that an estimate previously submitted is in error in excess of 2 minutes. For flights in North Atlantic, a revised estimate is required if the error is 3 minutes or more.
What items of information should be included in every position report?
A. Identification B. Position C. Time D. Altitude or flight level E. Type of flight plan (not required in IFR position reports made directly to ARTCCs or approach control) F. ETA and name of next reporting point G. The name only of the next succeeding reporting point along the route of flight, and H. Pertinent remarks
When used in conjunction with ATC altitude assignments, what does the term “pilot’s discretion” mean?
Means that ATC has offered the option of starting climb/decent whenever they wish and conducting the climb/descent at any rate they wish. The pilot may temporarily level off at any intermediate altitude. However, after vacating an altitude, the pilot may not return to that altitude.
Explain the terms “maintain” and “cruise” as they pertain to an IFR assigned altitude assignment
A. Maintain: Maintain last altitude assigned
B. Cruise: Assign a block of airspace to a pilot, fro minimum IFR altitude up to and including the altitude specified in the cruise clearance. Pilot may level off at any intermediate altitude, and the climb/descent may be made at the discretion of the pilot. However, once the pilot starts a descent, and verbally reports leaving an altitude in the block, He may not return to that altitude without additional ATC clearance.
Can ATC issue a cruise clearance that authorizes you to proceed to and execute an approach at the destination airport without an operating control tower?
Yes
ATC may issue a cruise clearance that authorizes you to execute an approach upon arrival at your destination airport. When operating in uncontrolled airspace on a cruise clearance, you are responsible for determining the minimum IFR altitude. In addition, descent and landing at an airport in uncontrolled airspace are governed by applicable VFR and/or ops specs.
Why would a pilot request VFR-On-Top clearance?
A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR, may request VFR-On-Top in lieu of an assigned altitude. For reasons such as turbulence, more favorable winds aloft, etc. pilot has the flexibility to select an altitude (subject to ATC restrictions). Pilots desiring to climb through a cloud, haze, smoke etc. and either cancel their IFR or operate VFR-On-Top may request a climb to VFR-On-Top.
ATC authorization must contain either a top report or a statement that no top is available, and a request to report reaching VFR-On-Top. Clearance may include a clearance limit, routing, and an alternative clearance.
Does an ATC authorization to “maintain VFR-On-Top” restrict you to only operating on top or above the cloud layer?
Not intended to restrict pilots so that they must operate only above an obscuring meteorological formation. Instead, it permits operation above, below, and between cloud layers, or in areas where there is no obscuration. It is imperative, however, that pilots understand that clearance to operate VFR-On-Top does not imply cancellation of IFR flight plan.
Which airspace prohibits VFR-On-Top?
Class A
What operational procedures must pilots on IFR flight plans adhere to when operating VFR-On-Top?
A. Fly at appropriate VFR altitude
B. Comply with VFR visibility and distance from clouds
C. Comply with IFR flight rules that are applicable to this flight
1. Minimum IFR altitudes
2. Position reporting
3. Comms
4. Course to be flown, etc
What is a “clearance limit” and when is it received?
A traffic clearance issued prior to departure will normally authorize flight to the airport of intended landing. Under certain conditions, at some locations, a short range clearance procedure is used, whereby a clearance is issued to a fix within or just outside of the terminal area, and pilots are advised of the frequency on which they will receive the long-range clearance direct from the center controller.
What information will ATC provide when they request a hold at a fix where the holding pattern is not charted?
An ATC clearance requiring an AC to hold at a fix where the pattern is not charted will include the following:
A. Direction of holding from the fix, in reference to the eight cardinal compass points
B. Holding fix (the fix may be omitted if included at the beginning of the transmission as the clearance
limit)
C. Radial, course, bearing, airway, or route on which the AC is to hold
D. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used
E. Direction of turns, if nonstandard
F. Time to expect further clearance and any pertinent additional delay info
What are the max airspeeds permitted for the AC while holding?
MHA to 6,000 feet: 200 KIAS
6,001 to 14,000 feet: 230 KIAS
14,001 and above: 265 KIAS
What is a non-standard versus a standard holding pattern?
Standard pattern: Right turns
Non-standard: Left turns
Describe the procedure for crosswind correction in a holding pattern?
Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs. When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to avoid major turning adjustments
What action is appropriate when approaching a holding fix at an airspeed in excess of maximum holding speed?
Start airspeed reduction when 3 minutes or less from the fix. Speed may be reduced earlier, but ATC must be advised of the change.
Why is it important for the pilot to receive an EFC time with initial holding instructions?
If comms are lost, the EFC time allows you to depart the holding fix at a definite time. Plan the last lap of your holding pattern to leave the fix as close as possible to the exact time.
Describe the different entry methods for holding
A. Direct
B. Teardrop
C. Parallel
What is the length of the leg for a standard holding pattern?
A. 1 minute inbound at or below 14,000 feet MSL, and
B. 1.5 minutes inbound above 14,000 feet MSL
If assigned, a DME/GPS hold, what procedures should be used?
DME/GPS Along Track Distance equipment holding is subject to the same entry and holding procedures except that distances are used in lieu of time values. The outbound course of the DME/GPS holding pattern is called the outbound leg of the pattern. The controller or IAP chart will specify length of the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is determined by the DME or ATD readout.
When does the timing for the outbound leg in a holding pattern being?
Over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound leg is completed.
The distance information indicated by your DME is different from that indicated on the GPS. Why?
DME signals are line-of-sight; the mileage readout is the straight line distance from the AC to the DME ground facility and is commonly referred to as slant range distance. GPS systems provide distance as a horizontal measurement from the waypoint to the AC. Therefore, at 3,000 feet and 0.5 miles the DME (slant range) would read 0.6 miles while the GPS distance would show actual horizontal distance of 0.5 DME. This error is smallest at low altitudes and/or at long ranges.
What regulations apply concerning supplemental oxygen?
A. At cabin pressure altitudes above 12,500 feet MSL up to and including 14,000 feet MSL, the minimum flight crew must use oxygen after 30 minutes
B. Above 14,000 feet MSL up to 15,000 feet MSL, the minimum flight crew must continuously use oxygen
C. Above 15,000 feet MSL, each passenger must be provided oxygen and minimum flight crew must continuously use oxygen
When may the PIC deviate from an ATC clearance?
In an emergency
If an emergency action requires deviation from 14 CFR Part 91, must a pilot submit a written report, and if so, to whom?
Each PIC who is given priority by ATC in an emergency shall, if requested by ATC, submit a written report within 48 hours to the manager of that ATC facility.
Concerning two-way radio comms failure in VFR and IFR, what is the procedure for altitude, route, leaving a holding fix, descent for approach, and approach selection?
In VFR: If occurs in VFR, or if VFR is encountered after failure, each pilot shall continue flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable.
In IFR: In occurs in IFR, or if VFR not in range, each pilot shall continue flight according to the following:
A. Route:
Assigned - route last assigned
Vectored - go direct from point of failure to fix, route, or airway
Expected - by route ATC advised to expect
Filed - by route filed in flight plan
B. Altitude:
Minimum - Min. for IFR ops
Expected - Altitude ATC advised to expect
Assigned - Altitude assigned in last clearance
C. Leave clearance limit:
- When the clearance limit is a fix from which the approach begins, commence descent or descent
and approach as close as possible to the EFC time if one has been received; or if one has not been received, as close as possible to the ETA as calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC)
ETE
- If clearance limit is not aa fix from which the approach begins, leave the clearance limit at the EFC
time if one has been received; or if none has been received, upon arrival over the clearance limit,
upon arrival over the clearance limit, and proceed to a fix from which an approach begins and
commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the ETA as calculated from the filed or amended ETE
Assuming comms failure, discuss altitudes to be flown for the following trip:
Cleared A B C D to E
MEA from A to B to C: 5,000 feet MSL
MEA from C to D: 11,000 feet MSL
MEA from D to E: 7,000 feet MSL
Assigned A to B: 6,000 feet MSL
Expect 8,000 feet at B
Comms lost prior to receiving the higher altitude
A. Maintain 6,000 feet MSL A to B, the climb to 8,000 feet MSL
B. Continue at 8,000 feet MSL. Climb to 11,000 feet MSL at C, or prior, if necessary to comply with MCA
at C
C. Upon reaching D, descend to 8,000 feet MSL, as 8,000 feet MSL was the highest of the altitude
situations stated in the rule
Assuming comms failure, discuss the recommended procedure to follow concerning altitudes to be flow for the following:
A pilot experiencing comms failure while being progressively descended to lower altitudes to begin an approach is assigned 2,700 feet MSL until crossing the VOR and then cleared for the approach.
The MOCA is 2,700 feet MSL and the MEA is 4,000 feet MSL. The AC is within 22 NM of the VOR.
Pilot should remain at 2,700 feet MSL until crossing the VOR because that altitude is the minimum IFR altitude for the route segment being flown.
The plane is within 22 NM so it will still receive nav signal at MOCA.
If you become doubtful about your position or adverse weather ahead, should you declare an emergency?
An emergency can be either a distress or an urgency condition. Pilots do not hesitate to declare an emergency when faced with distress conditions such as a fire, Mx failure, or structural damage. However, some are reluctant to report an urgency condition when they encounter situations that may not be immediately perilous, but are potentially catastrophic. An AC is in at least an urgency condition the moment the pilot becomes doubtful about position, fuel endurance, Wx, or any other condition that could adversely affect safety. This is the time to ask for help. Not after the situation has developed into a distress condition.
When would a pilot provide a “minimum fuel” advisory to ATC?
Indicates the ACs fuel supply has reached a state where, upon reaching the destination, it can accept little or no delay.
Does ATC consider a “minimum fuel” advisory an emergency and will give you priority handling?
No
Simply indicates an emergency situation is possible should any undue delay occur and does not imply a need for traffic priority. If the remaining usable fuel supply suggests the need for traffic priority to ensure safe landing, you should declare an emergency due to low fuel and report fuel remaining in minutes.
Define the term “single pilot resource management”
Art and science of managing all resources available (both on board and outside sources) to a single pilot (prior to and during the flight) to ensure a successful outcome of the flight
What are the various resources you will use when utilizing your SRM skills?
Can include, human resources, hardware and information.
A. Human resources: All other groups routinely working with the pilot who are involved in decisions required to operate a flight safely
- Dispatchers, Wx briefers, Mx, ATC, etc.
What are the six skills you must be competent in for effective SRM?
CARATS:
CFIT Awareness Aeronautical decision making Risk management Automation management Task management Situational Awareness
A majority of CFIT accidents have been attributed to what factors?
A. Lack of pilot currency
B. Loss of situational awareness
C. Pilot distractions and breakdown of SRM
D. Failure to comply with minimum safe altitudes
E. Breakdown of effective ADM
F. Insufficient planning, especially for the descent and arrival segments
Describe several operational techniques that will help you avoid a CFIT accident
A. Maintain situational awareness at all times
B. Adhere to safe takeoff and departure procedures
C. Familiarize yourself with surrounding terrain features and obstacles
D. Adhere t published routes and minimum altitudes
E. Fly stabilized approach
F. Understand ATC clearances and instructions
G. Don’t become complacent
Define ADM
A systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances
The DECIDE model of decision making involves which elements?
Detect change needing attention
Estimate the need to counter or react to the change
Choose the most desirable outcome
ID actions to successfully control the change
Do something
Evaluation the effect of the action countering the change
What is the definition of “risk”?
Future impact of a hazard that is not controlled or eliminated
What is the definition of “hazard”?
A present condition, event, object, or circumstance that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned or undesirable event
Define “risk management”
A decision making process designed to systematically ID hazards, assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action. It is a logical process of weighing the potential costs of risks against the possible benefits of allowing those risks to stand uncontrolled
What is one method you can use to control and manage risk?
One way pilot can limit exposure to risks is to set personal minimums for items in each risk category, using PAVE. These are limits unique to that individual pilots current level of experience and proficiency:
Pilot
Aircraft
EnVironment
External pressures: allowance for delays, diversions, cancelation, alternate plans, personal equipment available for alternate plans
Describe the 3P model used in ADM
Perceive, Perform, Process. Used repeatedly during all phases of flight.
A. Perceive a given set of circumstances for a flight. Think through PAVE. Ask “what could hurt me, my Pax, or my AC?”
B. Process by evaluating their impact on flight safety. Think through CARE (Consequences/Alternatives available/Reality of the situation/External pressures
C. Perform by implementing the best course of action using TEAM (Transfer/Eliminate/Accept/Mitigate)
Explain how often a pilot should use the 3P model of ADM throughout a flight
Once the pilot has completed the 3P process, the process begins again. The decision making process is a continuous loop
Define “situational awareness”
SA is the accurate perception and understanding of all factors and conditions that affect safety before/during/after flight
