Education- Research Methods In Context Flashcards
Wjat are questionaires
Questionaires are a written list of questions that are answered by respondants. These queations can be open or closed, depending on the type of data required by tge sociologist
Conductimg questionnaires
The researcher needs to consider how to administer the questionnaire. A key consideration will be what type of response rate is required; what proportion of questionaires need to be completed and returned.
Methods of administrating questionaires include:
Methods of administrating questionaires include: face-face Telephone Postal Internet
Advantages of face to face questionnaire’s
Relativley high response rate
Interviewer can clarify questions
Disadvantages of face to face questionnaires
Interviewer may influence response (interviewer bias)
Time consuming for the interviewer and interviewee
Potentially expensive
Advantages of internet method of questionnaires
Internet questionaires:
Very cheap
Cheap to send to a widley dispersed sample
Disadvantages of internet questionaires
Disadvantages of internet questionaires:
Repsonse rate likely to be low
Limited to those with internet access and not inclined to delete spam
What are fixed choice questions
Fixed choice questions give respondants a restricted range of options to choose from, eg: agree/disagree, or are asked ratings scale
Advantages of fixed choice questions
Fixed choice questions make it easy to produce statistical data and analyse answers
Also good for testing existing theories and producing reliable data which can be checked
Positivists see answers as social fact
What are questionnaires
Questionaires are a written list of questions that are answered by respondants
Can be open or closed depending on the type of data required by the sociologist
Practical issues using questionaires in education
Practical issues: questionnaires make it possible to access large numbers of respondents concentrated in one place; eg a school. However, researchers need to consider the questions they can ask you g children or those with poor research skills
Ethical issues using questionaires in education
Ethical issues using questionaires in education:
Respondants need to remain anonymous. There may be a problem with getting truly informed consent from young children
Theoretical issues using questionaires in education
Theoretical issues using questionaires in education:
The dominance of peer groups may influence the types of answers that pupils give; it may be difficult to prevent discussion among pupils so they collaborate on responses, potentially misleading answers
What are official statistics
Official statistics are numerical data produced by government agencies, which can be analysed by sociologists to draw conclusions about social institutions, such as education
Topics government statistics could cover
Topics government statistics could cover: Demography Crime Unemployment Educational achievement Births Deaths Marriages Divorces
Positivists view on official statiatics
Positivists view official satatistics as valid and reliable despite others tjinking they may be unreliable
Believe it is possible to use them to produce reliable and valid data, if they conduct their own research to supplement them
Interprevists view on official statistics
Interprevists view official statistics as an interpretation produced by government agencies; not the facts
They argue it is impossible to produce objective, reliable and valid statistics. Thwy point out that all data requires classification and interpretation eg- has crime actually taken place
Practicial issues of official statistics
Data achievement is usually broken down into ghe performance of males and females, but data on class backgrounds or the ethnicity of pupils and their achievement is less often available
Do not always use the categories that sociologists use, eg official definition of social class does not always match sociological definitions
Ethical issues using official statistics
No real ethical issues using official statistics since they are publically available and using them is unlikely to cause harm
Theoretical advantages of using official statistics
Official statistics tend to be comprehensive since it is often mandatory for state funded organisations to produce them; they are also generally reliable since the government imposes definitions and categories on educational institutions and stipulates that data is produced using standardised procedures
Theoretical issues of using official statistics
The validity of statistics may be open to question. Eg- schools may diliberatley manipulate data in order to secure funding, a favourable inspection report or success in league tables.
Two examples of this is when schools do not accuratley record absences or lateness, or they exclude or fail to enter poorly performing pupils for exams to enhnace league table performance
What are secondary sources of data
Secondary sources of data is data that already exists. These can include documents such as any physical artefact that contains meaningful material.
Also includes images, sounds, and digital data, as well as printed documents with words and statistics
What are public documents
Public documents are produced by the government, research bodies or companies
What are private documents
Private documents are produced by individuals
Uses of secondary sorces
Saves money and time
Can include data that are beyond the scope of sociologists to collect (eg census data)
Allows the study of historical societies, impossible to produce primary sources
Allows insight into aspects of social life which arnet accessible to researchers (eg family life)
Dosadvantages of secondary sources
Produced by non sociologists for their own purposss. Therefore they may not include specific data that sociologists are interested in, or the data may be collected without the rigour that sociologists use
May use categories or concepts that do not fit with sociological theories
Categories change, which makes comparison difficult (eg- government changed definitions of poverty and unemployment)
Criticisms of historical sources
Historical sources are vital for studying long term social changes, however there is no guarentee that these sources are representitive
There also tends to be few surviving documents produced by individuals, so that often the data that sociologists would like is not available
Qualitative sources reflect the subjective views of those who produced them
What are life documents
Life documents are private documents created by individuals, which record subjective states. They include diarie, letters, photos, biographies, memoirs, suicide notes, films and pictures
Plummer Criticisms of life documents
Surviving documents may not be representative
They are open to interpretation and highly subjective
The content may be influenced by the identity of the person, or the intended readers
Plummer view on life documents
Plummer still sees them as useful because they allow insights into people subjective states, and symbolic interactionists see them as revealing the personal meanings and self concepts which they see as shaping behaviour
Pros of The mass media and content analysis
Content analysis (analysing content by the meida) tends to be relatively cheap as media is easy accessible
What is Formal content analysis (mass media)
Formal content analysis is content classified and counted, allowing patterns to be discovered. However this is a subjective process and may not reveal the meaning behind the content
What is Thematic analysis (mass media and content analysis)
Thematic analysis examines the messages behind the portrayal of a particular topic, making it impossible to look at the messages behind media coverage. However the messages are open to interpretation; readers may not interpret in the same way as researchers
What is Textual analysis (mass media and content analysis)
Textual analysis involves detailed analysis of small pieces of text, providing an in depth interpretation of media content, but not an overall understanding. Can be subjective
What are structured interviews
Structured i terviews are pre set questions asked in the same order without variation
Advantages of structured interviews
Structured interviews are favoured by quantitative researchers.
Easier to replicate and compare results
Less chance of interviewer bias
Disadvantages of structured interviews
Structured interviews offer no opportunity for deeper questioning
Less chance of dicovering new hypothesis
Harder to discover what is important to the interviewees
What are semi structured interviews
Semi structured interviews are some fixed questions with a list of topics to be covered
Advantages of semi structured interviews
Semi structured interviews provide some opportunity for respondents to lead the interview, while covering the main topics
Disadvantages of structured interviews
Steuctured interviews lack specific advantages of both structured and un interviews
What afe unstructured interviews
Unstructured interviews are few or no fixed questions, more like a conversation
Advantages of unstructured interviews
Unstructured interviews are favoured by qualitative researchers
Allows respondants to direct the interview
More opportunity for developing new hypothesis
Advantages of individual interviews
Individual interviews prevents respondents being influenced by others
Less time consuming
Disadvantages of individual jnterviews
Individual interviews give mo opportunity to observe interactions
Advantages of group interviews
Group interviews enable interaction to be observed
Encourages deeper thoughf about issues, and more developed answers
Closer to normal social life
Disadvantages of group interviews
Group interviews mean respondants may be influenced by the desire to conform to the view of others
Dominant memebers of a group can sway opinion of others
Practical issues of interviews in education
Interviewing children in school requires consent from headteachers and parents, which can limit acces; those in authority may wish to limit the scope of the interview
Interviewers may also need to undergo a disclosure and barring service check
Interviews need to be carefully designed to take into account childrens less developed language skills and shorter attention span- questions need to be shorter and phrased simpler
Ethical issues on interviewing in education
Interviews with children must be carefully deaigned to not cause distress or fatigue. Therefore sensitive issues should be avoided
Confidentiality of interviews need to be assured, although if the interview reveals evidence of abuse, interviewers have a duty to report it, thus compromising confidentiality
Theoretical issues on interviews in education
The validity of the interview respondents may be affected by the way in which the interview is conducted and by interview bias
Interviewees may see the interviewer as an authority figure, like a teacher, and therefore may be unwilling to give full and truthfull answers
Group interviews risk the responses being influenced by peer group pressure, although may be useful for finding shared values of pupils which they may be reluctant to give in an individual interview
What is random sampling
Random sampling means every sampling unit has an equal chance of being chosen, eg- pulling names out of a hat or a computer generated list.
Advantages of random sampling
Random sampling means it is free from researcher bias as researchers cannot choose the people who they think may support their hypothesis
Usually failrly representative as it relies on statistical odds- meaning we are able to generalise to the wider population
Disadvantages of random sampling
Random sampling is difficult and time consuming
Can still be unrepresentative- large sample needed to make sure
Selected participants may refuse to take part
What is stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling means population is divided into groups according to important variables (class, gender and ethnicity)
Sample is then chosen in the same proportions as is found in the population
Advantages of stratified random sampling
Random sampling is free from researcher bias, as researchers cannot choose people who they think may support their hypothesis
Fairly representative, even with a small sample, meaning that we are able to generalise to the wider population
Disadvantages of stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling is difficult and time consuming
Requires sampling frame which include details of significant characteristics of population being studied
Complete representation is not possible, as the identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different
What is quota sampling
Quota sampling establishes a pre determined number of people with each particular characteristic. Once quota is filled, no more people in that category are included
Advantages pf quota sampling
Quota sampling can be conducted without variables being available from sampling frame
usually fairly representative even with a small sample
Able to generalise to the wider population
Disadvantages of quota sampling
Quota sampling is difficult and time consuming
Complete representation is not possible; the identified strata cannot reflect all fhe ways that people are different
What is snowballing sampling
Snowballing sampling is where members of a sample put researcher in touch with other potential member.
Used mainly with groups who are hard to identify or access (eg- criminals)
Disadvantages of snowballing sampling
Snowballing sampling is very unlikely to be truly representative since its based on people who have contact with one another
What is opportunity sampling
Opportunity sampling is when people are chosen on the basis of being easily accessible and willing to participate in research
Advantages of opportunity sampling
Opportunity sampling =
easiest
Quickest cheapest
May lead to a good response rate
Disadvantages of opportunity sampling
Opportunity samplinv makes no attempt to be truly representative- cannot generalise from the findings
What is positivism
Positivism suggests sociology can be scientific
To be scientific you should only study what can be observed, not emotions, meanings or motives
Objective social facts which can be expressed quantitatively
Look for correlations, which can represent represent causual relationships
Possible to discover laws of human behaviour
Human behaviour is shaped by external rather than internal stimuli
What is interpretivism
Interpretivism is an advocate for the use of quaLitative data, with a focus on meanings and motives
Prefered methods include in depth interviews ans participant ovservations
Understanding of peoples subjective states is required, and cannot be reduced to statistical data
What is quantitative data
Quantitative data uses quantities, ammounts or ranges
Advantages of using quaNtitative data
QuaNtitative data is easy to analyse and spot trends. Can be used to create general laws
Limitations of using quaNtitative data
QuaNtitative data doesnt reveal motives/meanings of behaviour
What is quaLitative data
QuaLitative data is not easily reduced to numbers. Qualitative data tends to answer questions about the ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a phenomenon, rather than questions of ‘how many’ or “how much”
Advantages of quaLitative data
QuaLitative data reveals motives/meanings of behaviour- more detailed info
Limitations of quaLitative data
QuaLitative data is difficult and time consuming to analyse
What is primary data
Primary data is straight from the researcher themselves
Strengths of primary data
Primary data can be tailored to your own research, more specific
Limitations of primary data
Primary data is time consuming and expensive to conduct your own study
What is secondary data
Secondary data is gathered from other researchers
Advantages pf secondary data
Using secondary data saves time and money
Limitations of secondary data
Secondary data may not be completely appropriate for your research study
What are experiments
Experiments are when researchers set up an artificial situation and manipulate it to test their theory/hypothesis.
They will try to control extraneous variables and follow ethical guidelines for their research
Advantages of experiments
Experiments allow them to investigate the influence of different variables under a controlled environment- offers more control than other research methods
Disadvantages of experiments
Experiments can sometimes lack validity due to the artificial environment (unless its a field experiment- in a natural environment)
Criticisms of official statistics
Goverment reported crime dropped by 13% but the office for mational statistics said this is not true- the stats excluded fraud and tech crimes. Real figure increased by 15%
What can case study’s be used for
Case studys can be used for:
Another highly unrepresentative form of sampling is to use a particular case study.
Case studies can be used for:
- To develop a comprehensive understanding of something by studying it in depth
- To develop a general theoretical approach by falsifying a theory/proving it wrong
- To develop typologies, e.g. different school subcultures
- To generate new hypotheses or theories
Problems with case studies
Case studies cannot be generalised
BRYMAN suggests that this can be overcome through using multiple case studies, however, it can be difficult to compare the findings of case studies carried out by different researchers
What are pilot studies
Pilot studies are small scaled trial study conducted before the main study in order to test the feasibility of the main study, and to refine the research methods being used
What can pilot studys be used for
Pilot studies can be used to:
-Test how useful and unambiguous interview questions are
- develop ways to gain the cooperation of respondents
- develop the research skills of the researchers
- decide whether or not to proceed with research
What are longitudinal studies
Longitudinal studies involve the study of a group of people over an extended period of time
How is data from longitudinal studies collected
Data from Longitudinal studies is usually collected periodically, with respondents being asked to provide information every few months or years
Types of research Methods used in longitudinal studies
Longitudinal research can use a wide variety of methods, for example, periodic focus groups or group interviews.
Most common method is the use of questionaires
Advantages of longitudinal studies
Longitudinal studies allow the researcher to loom af processes over time
does not require respondants to recall information retrospectively = data may be more valid, and it is invaluable for studying topics that look at long term changes over an individuals life course
What is multi stage sampling
Taking a sample of a sample; eg a sample of voters in a sample of constituencies. This allows a broad base sampling while saving time and money
Advantages of multi stage sampling
Multi stage sampling allows a broad based sample while saving money and time
Disadvantages of multi stage sampling
Doesn’t include all potential sources. Less representative than other methods, as many members of the population have no chance of being selected
