Economic And Social Developments

Question 1

How can emancipation be seen as a decisive turning point

Answer 1

Emancipation removed a barrier to industrial growth as serfdom ensured a restricted home market, a low level of agricultural technology and a largely immobile population leaving little room for development.
Total industrial production grew by 5 percent after 1861. Economy developed, peasants marketed crops which had previously remained u harvest. Russians were left with no land and could therefore supply a factory labour force.

Question 2

What reforms were made by von Reutern (minister of finance) from 62-78

Answer 2

• new arrangements for collecting taxes and publishing budgets was put in place.
• tax farming was abolished and the tax system was reformed to include more indirect taxation.
• bank and credit facilities were extended with the establishment of a state bank in 1860 and saving banks in 1869
• trade was promoted with the reduction of import duties form 1863
• enterprise to develop railways
• foreign investment was encouraged
• new legalisations regulated joint stock companies ( a business owned by shareholders who invested their own capital in the enterprise)
• government support for development of the cotton industry.

Question 3

Who was Mikhail von Reutern

Answer 3

A German from the Russian Baltic landowning class. He believed the state money and control should direct economic change and he used his position to carry out these actions. He encouraged the development of railways. He became chairman of the council of ministers in 1881

Question 4

What was the result of von Reuterns reforms

Answer 4

-forced tax farmers to look elsewhere to invest
- opportunities provided by the government subsidies and trade treaties encouraged enterprise.
- the use of foreign technical enterprise support do industrial expansion
- railway networks saw a expansions
- annual growth rate of 6 percent during Von Reuterns term in office.
- oil extraction began in the Caspian Sea port of Baku in 1871
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Question 5

How did Russia’s economy still remain weak even after Von Reuterns reforms

Answer 5

• a third of all government expenditure went on the repayments of debts and the Russian currency
• the limitation of the emancipation edict and taxation system which left 66% of government revenue coming from indirect taxation keeping the peasantry poor and the domestic market small.
• traffic reductions meant a decline in government revenues and the decision was taken to raise these again from 1878

Question 6

Who was Ivan Vyshnegradsky

Answer 6

Began as a priest who accumulated wealth by investment. Made a member of the council of ministers where he drew up a new programme for technical education.
1887-92 he was ministry of finance. Where he successfully reduced the budget deficit but only because of harsh measures

Question 7

Who was Sergei Witte

Answer 7

Worked in railway developments.
1892- promoted to minister of communications and then to minister of finance in 1903.
Author of the October manifesto.
Russia’s first prime minister but resigned after 6 months.
Opposed Russia’s entry to World War One on economic grounds.

Question 8

What reforms were made under Vyshnegradsky

Answer 8

• prohibitive import tariffs of 30% of the value of raw materials to boost home production and help iron industry
• increased indirect taxes and mounted a drive to swell grain exports
• successful policy’s
• between 1881- 1891 grain exports increased by 18%

Question 9

Why was Vyshnegradsky dismissed

Answer 9

1891-92 when bad harvest brought widespread famine where thousands died Vyshnegradsky policy’s made it worse. ‘ we shall not eat but we shall export’

Question 10

When was the great famine and what happens

Answer 10

1891-1892
Affected 17/39 Russian provinces.
Early winter and long hot dry summer when ruined crops.
Population of hunger brought disease. Cholera continued to kill more.
Over 350,000 died from starvation or disease. The government failed to organise adequate relief and it was left to volunteer groups to help the stricken peasants.

Question 11

What was Wittes ideas for the economy

What did he do

Answer 11

• the only way was to continue with protective tariffs, heavy taxation and forced exports to generate capital.
• sought additional loads from abroad and foreign investment increased considerably.
  Year- 1880- 98 million foreign investments
  Year- 1895- 280

Much of the investments went into minding, the metal trades, oil and banking.

• Witte encouraged engineers, managers and workers from Europe to oversea industrial developments and advise in planning and techniques resulting in an expansion of railway networks.
• became the fourth largest industrial economy by 1897- increased Russian exported and foreign trade.

Question 12

How did the railways reform

Answer 12

First railway - 1837
A line linking St Petersburg and Moscow in 1851
Expansion better 1855-94 by the mid 90s 60% of the whole of Russian railway systems was owned by the state.

Question 13

What were land banks

Answer 13

Peasant land banks held funds and reserves of land. They were set up to assist peasants who wished to acquire land directly or through purchase from nobles.
The Nobel landmarks were to help novels with legal costs

Interest rates were low. They increased peasant ownership and between 1877- 1905 26 million hectares passed into peasant hands.

Question 14

How may it be argued that emancipation did nothing for the economy

Answer 14

It could be argued that everything continued as before the emancipation edict. The only difference was the quantity of ploughland had been rescued and the meadows were still in bad condition.
- the great famine

Question 15

Why was there an increase in agriculture production in the 1870’s and 80’s

Answer 15

Largely thanks to the efforts of the kulak class to respond positively to vsynegradsky seaport to drive.

Question 16

How did factory ownership develop between 90-80’s

Answer 16

60-80 Most private industrial enterprises were in the hands of the traditional nobility.

However in the 90’s non nobles found a new niche as factory owners supervisors and foremen.

Question 17

How can the landed elite be described in 1880s

Answer 17

Small group of noble status
After emancipation their personal landholdings declined as some sold out to pay off debts and others abandoned their farms in favour of more rewarding professional activities.
1880s 1/5 of uni students came from the hereditary nobility.
1882 more than 700 nobles owned their own business in Moscow while 2500 were employed transport of industry.
Although there were changes to their position most of them retained their previous wealth and status.

Question 18

How could the middle class in Russia be described in the 1880s

Answer 18

With open and industrial expansion and an increase in educational opportunities russias middle class began to grow. Government contracts to build a railway ansd state loans to set up factories provided opportunities for those who were enterprising.

Question 19

How could that urban working class be described in Russia

Answer 19

The number of urban workers were still very small around 2%. Although it was still common for peasants to move to town to work temporarily. Some presents left the countryside either to join a migrant group building railways are to become urban workers.

Question 20

What were the working conditions for urban workers

Answer 20

Conditions in the cities could be Grim and the factories paid a little to their workers despite reforming legalisation.
In 1882 to 90 there was a series of reforms: regulations of child labour, A reduction hours, A reduction in excessive fines and payment in kind, and the appointment of inspectors with power to check up on working and living conditions.
Between 1886 and 1894 there were around 33 strikes per year. However nothing stop the drive from countryside to city.

Question 21

How could the position of the peasantry be described

Answer 21

The peasantry was divided. At the top was the Kulaks. At the bottom the poorest peasants found life getting harsher as they turn into landless labourers.
In the 1880s two out of every three of the former Serfs in the Tambov region were unable to feed their household without falling into debt.

State peasants tended to be better off than those of the emancipated privately owned serfs because they were granted more land.
A large proportion of Serfs were turned down as on unfit for military service.
Average life expectancy was around 27 years for males and 29 years for women. In England the average age of death was 45 years.

Question 22

What was the cultural influence of the church.

Answer 22

70% of the population subscribed a close bond with the tsarist regime and through the orthodox church.
Every peasant hut held its icon and the mix of religion and superstition was a big part of peasant culture.
In 1868 reforms were introduced to improve the education of priests.
Under Alexander the third the Orthodox church was given increased control over primary education.
Alexander the third’s policy of Russification enabled him to promote orthodox say throughout the Empire.
more than 8500 Muslims and 50,000 pagans were converted to orthodoxy during Alexander the third reign.

Question 23

What was the influence of orthodoxy.

Answer 23

There was evidence to suggest that its control over the lives of people was weakening. The provision of churches and priest had not kept pace with the growth of urbanisation and the Orthodox religion often seemed to have little relevance for the workers in the factories.

Question 24

How can the economic and social developments be summarised at the end of the 1880s

Answer 24

The backwardness of the Russian economy began to develop after the defeat of the Crimean war.
The state played an active role in promoting industry.
The peasants were forced to support industrialisation by the drive to export green and an increase in indirect taxes shin.
Railway development was crucial first step.
Emancipation and industrialisation brought social change affecting land owners and a growing middle class
The Orthodox Church maintained a strong cultural influence