Digestive System Flashcards
digestive system functions (4)
ingestion
digestion
absorption
defecation
taking in food
Ingestion
breaking food into nutrient molecules
Digestion
movement of nutrients into the
bloodstream
Absorption
excretes to rid the body of indigestible waste
Defecation
Two main groups of organs
alimentary canal
accessory digestive organs
other terms for alimentary canal
gastrointestinal, or GI, tract
These organs ingest, digest, absorb, defecate
alimentary canal
Include teeth, tongue, and several large digestive organs;
assist digestion in various ways
accessory digestive organs
is a continuous, coiled, hollow tube that runs through the ventral cavity from stomach to anus
The alimentary canal
mucous membrane–lined cavity [both terms]
Mouth (oral cavity)
protect the anterior opening [both terms]
Lips (labia)
form the lateral walls
Cheeks
forms the anterior roof
Hard palate
forms the posterior roof
Soft palate
fleshy projection of the soft palate
Uvula
space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally
Vestibule
area contained by the teeth
Oral cavity proper
attached at hyoid bone and styloid processes of the skull, and by the lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
Tongue
2 types of Tonsils
palatine
lingual
Tonsils located at posterior end of oral cavity
palatine
Tonsils located at the base of the tongue
lingual
unit for spiciness
scoville
spiciness
heat, not taste (pain)
term for chewing of food
Mastication
mixes masticated food with saliva
Tongue
initiates swallowing
Tongue
allow for taste
Taste buds on the tongue
Food passes from the mouth posteriorly into the: (2)
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
pharynx posterior to oral cavity
oropharynx
below the oropharynx and continuous with the esophagus
Laryngopharynx
Food is propelled to the esophagus by two skeletal muscle layers in the pharynx
○ Longitudinal outer layer
○ Circular inner layer
Alternating contractions of the muscle layers (???) propel the food
peristalsis
the esophagus is about how many inches long?
10
esophagus Runs from ??? to ??? through the ???
pharynx;
stomach;
diaphragm
Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing) to the stomach
esophagus
Passageway for food only
esophagus
respiratory system branches off after the ???
pharynx
Summary of the four layers from innermost to outermost, from esophagus to the large intestine
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscularis externa
- Serosa
Innermost, moist membrane
mucosa
type of epithelium in mucosa
mostly simple columnar epithelium
esophagus epithelium type
stratified squamous epithelium
consists of:
○ Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria)
○ Scanty smooth muscle layer
mucosa
Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, and lymphatic vessels;
Just beneath the mucosa
submucosa
smooth muscle
* Inner circular layer
* Outer longitudinal layer
muscularis externa
outermost layer of the wall; contains fluid-producing cells
serosa
serosa (2)
visceral & parietal peritoneum
innermost layer that is continuous with the outermost layer
visceral peritoneum
outermost layer that lines the abdominopelvic cavity by way of the mesentery
parietal peritoneum
most common types of peptic ulcer
gastric & duodenal ulcer
ulcer that is Painful when there’s absence of food
gastric (poor man’s) ulcer
ulcer that is painful when there’s food
Duodenal (executive) ulcer
mechanical digestion
chewing in the mouth and churning in the stomach
Chemical digestion occurs from ?? to ??
from stomach to intestine
Chyme
processed food (partially digested food)
Alimentary canal wall contains two intrinsic nerve plexuses that are part of the autonomic nervous system
○ Submucosal nerve plexus
○ Myenteric nerve plexus
Regulate mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract organs
Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
C-shaped organ located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
stomach
stomach: Food enters at the ??? from the esophagus
cardioesophageal sphincter
stomach: Food empties into the small intestine at the ???
pyloric sphincter (valve)
Regions of the stomach (4)
cardial (cardia)
fundus
body
pylorus
region of stomach: near the heart and surrounds the cardioesophageal sphincter
cardial (cardia)
region of stomach: expanded portion lateral to the cardiac region
Fundus
region of stomach: midportion
body
region of stomach: funnel-shaped terminal end
pylorus
stomach: is the concave medial surface
Lesser curvature
stomach: is the convex lateral surface
Greater curvature
Stomach can stretch and hold how much food when full?
4 L (1 gallon)
internal folds of the mucosa present when the stomach is empty
Rugae
○ Double layer of the peritoneum
○ Extends from liver to the lesser curvature of stomach
lesser omentum
○ Another extension of the peritoneum
○ Covers the abdominal organs
○ Fat insulates, cushions, and protects abdominal organs
greater omentum
Simple columnar epithelium composed almost entirely of mucous cells
stomach mucosa
produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus
Mucous cells
Dotted by gastric pits leading to gastric glands that secrete gastric juice
stomach mucosa
needed for vitamin B12 absorption in the small intestine
Intrinsic factor
produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)
Chief cells in stomach mucosa
produce hydrochloric acid that activates enzymes
Parietal cells in stomach mucosa
produce thin acidic mucus (different from the mucus produced by mucous cells of the mucosa)
Mucous neck cells in stomach mucosa
produce local hormones such as gastrin
Enteroendocrine cells
Temporary storage tank for food
stomach
○ Site of food breakdown
○ Chemical breakdown of protein begins
stomach
Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine
stomach
The body’s major digestive organ
small intestine
Longest portion of the alimentary tube
small intestine
small intestine length in a living person
2–4 m, or 7–13 feet
Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
small intestine
small intestine is a muscular tube extending from the ??? to the ???
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery
small intestine
Subdivisions of small intestine
○ Duodenum
○ Jejunum
○ Ileum
Chemical digestion begins in here
small intestine
Enzymes produced by intestinal cells and pancreas are carried to the duodenum by ???
pancreatic ducts
Bile, formed by the liver, enters the duodenum via the ?
bile duct
is the location where the main pancreatic duct and bile ducts join
Hepatopancreatic ampulla
Hepatopancreatic ampulla other term
hepatobiliary duct
Structural modifications (3)
○ Increase surface area for food absorption
○ Decrease in number toward the end of the small intestine
villi
microvilli
circular folds
fingerlike projections formed by the mucosa
House a capillary bed and lacteal
- for movement
villi
tiny projections of the plasma membrane (brush border enzymes)
- for absorption
microvilli
deep folds of mucosa and submucosa
Helps in movement
Circular folds (plicae circulares)
○ Collections of lymphatic tissue
○ Located in submucosa
Increase in number toward the end of the small intestine
Peyer’s patches
Peyer’s patches increase in number toward the end of the small intestine
○ More are needed there because ?
remaining food residue contains much bacteria
Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at ???, than the small intestine
1.5 m
saclike first part of the large intestine
cecum
- Hangs from the cecum
- Accumulation of lymphoid tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis) man
appendix
travels up right side of abdomen and makes a turn at the right colic (hepatic) flexure
ascending colon
travels across the abdominal cavity and turns at the left colic (splenic) flexure
transverse colon
colon: travels down the left side
descending
S-shaped region; enters the pelvis
sigmoid colon
Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal are located in the ?
pelvis
Anal canal ends at the ?
anus
opening of the large intestine
anus
anal sphincter: formed by skeletal muscle and is voluntary
external
anal sphincter: formed by smooth muscle and is involuntary
internal
These sphincters are normally closed except during defecation
anal sphincters
delivers indigestible food residues to the body’s exterior
The large intestine
produce alkaline mucus to lubricate the passage of feces
Goblet cells
[large intestine] Muscularis externa layer is reduced to three bands of muscle, called ?
teniae coli
Part of digestive system for water absorption, forming feces
large intestine
masticate (chew) food into smaller fragments
Teeth
Humans have two sets of teeth during a lifetime
deciduous
permanent
A baby has how many teeth by age 2
20
First teeth to appear are the ?
lower central incisors
Deciduous teeth
baby or milk teeth
Replace deciduous teeth between ages 6 and 12
permanent teeth
A full set of permanent teeth is how many? (with the wisdom teeth)
32 teeth
teeth for cutting
incisors
teeth for tearing and piercing [both terms]
canines (eyeteeth)
teeth for grinding (2)
Premolars (bicuspids) and molars
bicuspids (teeth)
premolars
Two major regions of a tooth
- Crown
- Root
exposed part of tooth above the gingiva (gum)
crown
covers the crown
Enamel
found deep to the enamel and forms the bulk of the tooth, surrounds the pulp cavity
Dentin
contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers (pulp)
Pulp cavity
where the pulp cavity extends into the root
Root canal
covers outer surface and attaches the tooth to the periodontal membrane (ligament)
Cement
holds tooth in place in the bony jaw
Periodontal membrane
the root of a tooth consists of: (2)
cement
periodontal membrane
is a connector between the crown and root; Region in contact with the gum
The neck
Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth
parotid
submandibular
sublingual
§ Found anterior to the ears
§ Mumps affect these salivary glands
parotid glands
empty saliva into the floor of the mouth through small ducts
submandibular & sublingual glands
Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
Helps to moisten and bind food together into a mass called a bolus
saliva
saliva contains (2)
salivary amylase
lysozymes & antibodies
Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
saliva
Soft, pink triangular gland
pancreas
pancreas:
Found posterior to the ???
Mostly retroperitoneal
parietal peritoneum
pancreas Extends across the ??? from ??? to ???
abdomen;
spleen;
duodenum
Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
pancreas
Secretes enzymes into the duodenum
pancreas
??? introduced with ??? neutralizes acidic chyme coming from stomach
Alkaline fluid;
enzymes
Hormones produced by the pancreas
insulin
glucagon
helps glucose enter the cell
Insulin
breaks down glycogen
Glucagon
- Largest gland in the body
○ Largest internal organ
liver
liver location
Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
liver Consists of four lobes suspended from the ??? and abdominal wall by the ???
diaphragm;
falciform ligament
Digestive role is to produce bile
liver
Bile leaves the liver through the ??? and enters duodenum through the ???
common hepatic duct;
bile duct
Bile is [color], watery solution
yellow-green
bile contains?
- Bile salts
- bile pigments (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin)
- Cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes
emulsifies (breaks down) fats
Bile
Green sac found in a shallow fossa in the inferior surface of the liver
gallbladder
When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the ??? for storage in the gallbladder
cystic duct
When does the gallbladder spurt out stored bile
fatty food enters the duodenum
While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated by the ?
removal of water
Mental disorders visible in teeth (2)
anorexia nervosa
bulimia
○ Fear of being fat
○ No eating at all
anorexia nervosa
○ Guilt of eating
○ Eats then vomits
bulimia
why is bulimia visible in teeth
Gastric acid discolors teeth
means no appetite (which is normal)
anorexia
nasogastric tube (NGT) feeding (2)
gavage
lavage
NGT tube for feeding
gavage
NGT tube to remove gastric juice/acid
lavage
Essential processes of the GI tract (6)
ingestion
propulsion
mechanical breakdown
digestion
absorption
defecation
placing of food into the mouth
ingestion
movement of foods from one region of the digestive system to another
Propulsion
alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that squeeze food along the GI tract
Peristalsis
movement of materials back and forth to foster mixing in the small intestine
Segmentation
○ Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
○ Churning of food in the stomach
○ Segmentation in the small intestine
mechanical breakdown
prepares food for further degradation by enzymes
occurs when enzymes chemically break down large molecules into their building blocks
digestion
are broken down to monosaccharides (simple sugars)
Carbohydrates
are broken down to amino acids
Proteins
are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol
Fats
End products of digestion are absorbed in the ??? or ???
blood or lymph
Food must enter mucosal cells and then move into blood or lymph capillaries
absorption
Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in the form of feces
defecation
functions in swallowing
Pharynx
swallowing other term
deglutition
Two phases of swallowing
buccal
pharyngeal-esophageal
swallowing phase:
® Voluntary
® Occurs in the mouth
® Food is formed into a bolus
® The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the tongue
buccal
buccal phase: The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the ???
tongue
buccal phase: this rises to close off the nasal passageways
uvula
swallowing phase: ® Involuntary transport of the bolus by peristalsis
® Nasal and respiratory passageways are blocked
® Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the stomach
® The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened when food presses against it
Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
pharyngeal-esophageal phase: The ??? is opened when food presses against it so food can enter the stomach
cardioesophageal sphincter
pharyngeal-esophageal phase: the ??? rises to ensure that its passageway is covered by the ??? so that ingested substances do not enter respiratory passageways
larynx;
epiglottis
Gastric juice is regulated by ??? and ??? factors
neural & hormonal
Presence of food or rising pH causes the release of the hormone ???
gastrin
Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce: (3)
§ Protein-digesting enzymes (pepsin/bile)
§ Mucus
§ Hydrochloric acid
makes the stomach contents very acidic
Hydrochloric acid
§ Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion
§ Provides a hostile environment for microorganisms
stomach’s acidic pH
for protein digestion
pepsin
Protein-digestion enzymes
pepsin
rennin
an active protein-digesting enzyme
Pepsin
works on digesting milk protein in infants; not produced in adults
Rennin
are virtually the only items absorbed in the stomach
Alcohol and aspirin
waves of peristalsis occur from the fundus to the pylorus, forcing food past the pyloric sphincter
Peristalsis
the pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine (3 ml at a time)
Grinding
peristaltic waves close the pyloric sphincter, forcing contents back into the stomach; the stomach empties in 4–6 hours
Retropulsion
movement that act to continually mix the food with digestive juices and (strangely) also plays a major role in propelling foods along the tract
segmentation
type of movement seen only in the large intestine; occurs infrequently and acts to move feces over relatively long distances towards the anus
mass movement
presence of feces in the rectum excites ??? so that the ??? reflex is initiated
stretch receptors;
defecation
irritation of the gastrointestinal tract by drugs/bacteria might stimulate the ??? in the medulla, causing vomiting
emetic center
essentially a reverse peristalsis
vomiting
Activities of the Small Intestine (2)
- Chyme breakdown and absorption
- Chyme propulsion
○ ??? from the brush border function to:
§ Break double sugars into simple sugars
§ Complete some protein digestion
Intestinal enzymes
help to complete digestion of all food groups (2)
Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic enzymes
play the major role in the digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
Pancreatic enzymes
neutralizes acidic chyme and provides the proper environment for the pancreatic enzymes to operate
Alkaline content
Release of pancreatic juice from the pancreas into the duodenum is stimulated by: (2)
- Vagus nerves
- Local hormones
travel via the blood to influence the release of pancreatic juice (and bile)
Local hormones
also target the liver and gallbladder to release bile
Hormones (secretin and CCK)
Needed for fat absorption and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (K, D, E, and A)
bile
fat-soluble vitamins (4)
(K, D, E, and A)
small intestine: Most substances are absorbed by ??? through cell membranes
active transport
small intestine: Lipids are absorbed by
diffusion
small intestine: Substances are transported to the liver by the ??? or ???
hepatic portal vein or lymph
Activities of the Large Intestine (2)
- Nutrient breakdown and absorption
- Propulsion of food residue and defecation
No digestive enzymes are produced here
large intestine
digest remaining nutrients in large intestine
Resident bacteria
large intestine:
§ Produce some vitamin K and some B vitamins
§ Release gases
resident bacteria
in large intestine, begins when food residue arrives
Sluggish peristalsis
are the movements occurring most frequently in the large intestine
Haustral contractions
are slow, powerful movements that occur three to four times per day
Mass movements
occurs with relaxation of the voluntary (external) anal sphincter
Defecation
Most foods are used as ???
metabolic fuel
Foods are oxidized and transformed into
adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
is chemical energy that drives cellular activities
ATP
Energy value of food is measured in ?
kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C)
substance used by the body for growth, maintenance, and repair
nutrient
Major nutrients (4)
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Water
Minor nutrients (2)
Vitamins
Minerals
diet recommendation in Philippines
Pinggang Pinoy (go, grow, glow)
goal is to eradicate micronutrient deficiency
sangkap pinoy (seal)
The seal that indicates that the product is fortified with essential vitamins and minerals.
sangkap pinoy seal
Issued in 1992
Six major food groups arranged horizontally
healthy eating pyramid
Issued in 2011 by the USDA
Five food groups are arranged by a round plate
myplate
Dietary carbohydrates are ?
sugars and starches
Most are derived from plants such as fruits and
vegetables
carbohydrates
Saturated fats from animal products (meats)
lipids
Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and vegetable oi
lipids
Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk products
(dairy products)
lipids
contain all essential amino acids
Complete proteins
Most are from animal products (eggs, milk, meat, poultry, and fish)
proteins
those that the body cannot make and must be obtained through diet
Essential amino acids
Legumes and beans also have proteins, but the proteins are ?
incomplete
byproduct of protein
uric acid
Most vitamins function as ?
coenzymes
vitamins are Found mainly in ?
fruits and vegetables
Mainly important for enzyme activity
Foods richest in this nutrient: vegetables, legumes, milk,
and some meats
minerals
is all of the chemical reactions necessary to maintain life
Metabolism
substances are broken down to simpler substances; energy is released and captured to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Catabolism
larger molecules are built from smaller ones
Anabolism
are the body’s preferred source to produce cellular energy (ATP)
Carbohydrates
Major breakdown product of carbohydrate digestion
Fuel used to make ATP
Glucose (blood sugar)
As glucose is oxidized, carbon dioxide, water, and ATP are formed
cellular respiration
Events of three main metabolic pathways of cellular respiration
- glycolysis
- Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
- electron transport chain
metabolic pathways:
Occurs in the cytosol
Energizes a glucose molecule so it can be split into two pyruvic acid molecules and yield ATP
glycolysis
metabolic pathways:
Occurs in the mitochondrion
Produces virtually all the carbon dioxide and water resulting from cellular respiration
Yields a small amount of ATP
citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
metabolic pathways:
Hydrogen atoms removed during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are delivered to protein carriers
Hydrogen atoms are split into hydrogen ions and electrons in the mitochondria
Electrons give off energy in a series of steps to enable
the production of ATP
electron transport chain
Carbohydrate Metabolism (2)
hyperglycemia
hypoglycemia
excessively high levels of glucose in the blood
Hyperglycemia
Excess glucose is stored in body cells as ??? or converted to ???
glycogen;
fat
low levels of glucose in the blood
Hypoglycemia
(3) occur to restore normal blood glucose levels
Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and fat breakdown
Insulate the body
Protect organs
Build some cell structures (membranes and myelin
sheaths)
Provide reserve energy
fats
is stored in subcutaneous tissue and other fat depots
Excess dietary fat
Excessive fat breakdown causes blood to become
acidic (acidosis or ketoacidosis)
another byproduct of protein
ammonia
are oxidized to form ATP mainly when other fuel sources are not available
Amino acids
released as amino acids are catabolized, is detoxified by liver cells that combine it with carbon dioxide to form urea
Ammonia
is the body’s key metabolic organ
Liver
Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
Degrades hormones
Produces cholesterol, blood proteins (albumin and
clotting proteins)
liver
To maintain homeostasis of blood glucose levels, the liver performs: (3)
glycogenesis
glycogenolysis
gluconeogenesis
“glycogen formation”
Glucose molecules are converted to glycogen and
stored in the liver
glycogenesis
“glycogen splitting”
Glucose is released from the liver after conversion from glycogen
Glycogenolysis
“formation of new sugar”
Glucose is produced from fats and proteins
Gluconeogenesis
Blood proteins made by the liver are assembled from
amino acids
is the most abundant protein in blood
Albumin
Liver cells detoxify ???
ammonia
Structural basis of steroid hormones and vitamin D
Building block of plasma membranes
cholesterol
Most cholesterol (??%) is produced in the ???; only 15% is from the diet
85%;
liver
- cannot freely circulate in
the bloodstream; - They are transported by lipoproteins (lipid-protein
complexes) known as LDLs and HDLs
Cholesterol and fatty acids
since Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely circulate in
the bloodstream, they are transported by ???
lipoproteins
transport cholesterol to body cells
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
Rated “bad lipoproteins”
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
why are LDLs rated as bad lipoproteins
they can lead to atherosclerosis
transport cholesterol from body cells to the liver
High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
Rated “good lipoproteins”
High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
why are HDLs rated as good lipoproteins
since cholesterol is destined
for breakdown and elimination
Energy intake = ???
(heat + work + energy storage)
Total energy output
Interference with the body’s energy balance leads to: (2)
Obesity
Malnutrition (leading to body wasting)
amount of heat produced by the body per unit of time at rest
Basic metabolic rate (BMR)
Average BMR is about ??? for an average 70-kg (154-lb) adult
60 to 72 kcal/hour
Factors that influence BMR (3)
surface area
gender
age
Surface area—a small body usually has a (lower or higher) BMR
higher
Gender—??? tend to have higher BMRs
males
Age—??? have higher BMRs
children and adolescents
The amount of ??? produced is the most important control factor of BMR
thyroxine
total amount of kilocalories the body must consume to fuel ongoing activities
Total metabolic rate (TMR)
When foods are oxidized, more than 60% of energy escapes as ???, warming the body
heat
The body’s thermostat is in the ???
hypothalamus
controlled hyperthermia
Fever
If the body thermostat is set too (low or high?), body proteins may be denatured, and permanent brain damage may occur
high
The alimentary canal is a continuous, hollow tube present by the ??? week of development
fifth
bud from the mucosa of the alimentary tube
Digestive glands
The developing fetus receives all nutrients through the ???
placenta
In newborns, feeding must be ???, peristalsis is ???, and vomiting is ???
frequent;
inefficient;
common
Newborn reflexes (2)
rooting & sucking reflex
helps the infant find the nipple
Rooting reflex
helps the infant hold on to the nipple and swallow
Sucking reflex
Teething begins around age ?
6 months
inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract; can occur at any time
Gastroenteritis
inflammation of the appendix; common in adolescents
Appendicitis
Metabolism decreases with ??
old age
Middle-age digestive problems (2)
○ Ulcers
○ Gallbladder problems
Later middle-age problems (2)
○ Obesity
○ Diabetes mellitus
diabetes mellitus: commonly inborn (auto-immune disease)
DM 1
diabetes mellitus: developed through lifestyle
DM 2
- Activity of the digestive tract in old age
○ ??? digestive juices
○ Peristalsis ???
○ ??? and ??? are more common
Fewer;
slows;
Diverticulosis and gastrointestinal cancers
produce an enzyme-poor “juice” containing mucus; found in the submucosa of the small intestine
intestinal glands
produce hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen
gastric glands
anterosuperior boundary of the oral cavity; supported by bone
hard palate
anatomical regions involved in the mechanical breakdown of food
stomach
oral cavity
prevents food from moving back into the small intestine once it has entered the large intestine
ileocecal valve
saclike outpocketings of the large intestine wall
haustra
folds of the stomach mucosa
rugae
common passage for food and air
pharynx
uvula hangs from its posterior edge
soft palate
3 extensions/modifications of the peritoneum
mesentery
lesser & greater omentum
serous membrane forming part of the wall of the small intestine
visceral peritoneum
serosa of the abdominal cavity wall
parietal peritoneum
structure that suspends the small intestine from the posterior body wall
mesentery
inflammation of the abdominal serosa
peritonitis
condition resulting from the reflux of acidic gastric juice into the esophagus
heartburn
usually indicates liver problems or blockage of the biliary ducts
jaundice
an erosion of the stomach or duodenal mucosa
ulcer
passage of watery stools
diarrhea
causes severe epigastric pain; associated with prolonged storage of bile in the gallbladder
gallstones
inability to pass feces; often a result of poor vowel habits
constipation
