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Physiology > Digestive System > Flashcards

Digestive System Flashcards

1
Q

What is Herbivore?

A

The animals that feed only on plants and algae

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2
Q

What is carnivore?

A

animals that feed only on meat

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3
Q

What is omnivore?

A

Animals that feed on both plants and animals

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4
Q

Most animals are______ feeders

A

Opportunistic

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5
Q

An animal’s diet must satisfy 3 nutritional needs

A

1)chemical energy to produce ATP
2)raw material for biosynthesis
3)essential nutrients

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6
Q

Two types of organic molecules must be obtained from diet____ and _____

A

organic carbon(from sugars)
organic nitrogen(proteins)

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7
Q

What are essential nutrients?

A

Cannot synthesize in the body therefore must obtain from diet

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8
Q

What are essential amino acids?

A

all organisms require 20 amino acids

Plants can produce all of them but animals contains enzyme that can synthesize half of these amino acids

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9
Q

Human requires_____essential amino acids

A

8
ALL HIS TV MPT

Histidine is only needed for human infants.

Alanine
Leucine
Lysine
Threonine
Valine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan

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10
Q

Animal proteins are____ and plants proteins are____

A

A-complete(contains all 20)
P-incomplete (lacks one or more)

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11
Q

Why animals require essential fatty acids?

A

to synthesize cell membrane,signaling molecules and to store fats

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12
Q

Can animals synthesize all essential fatty acids?

A

No

Although animals can synthesize many fatty acids,they lack enzyme to form double bonds in some essential fatty acids

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13
Q

Example of essential fatty acid

A

Linoleic acid

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14
Q

____ vitamins is required by humans

A

13

4 lipid soluble and 9 water soluble

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15
Q

What are fat soluble vitamins and their func?

A

Vit A,D,E,K

Vit A(retinol)-components of visual pigment;maintenance of epithelial tissue

Vit D-aids in calcium and phosphorus absorption and bone formation

Vit E(tocopherol)-antioxidant;prevent damage to cell membranes

Vit K(phylloquinone)-blood clotting

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16
Q

Fat soluble vitamins resources

A

A-green and orange vegatables
D-dairy products,egg yolk
E-vegetable oils,seeds,nuts
K-Green vegetables,tea and also made by colon bacteria

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17
Q

Vit A deficiency can cause

A

blindness
skin disorders
impaired immunity

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18
Q

Vit D deficiency

A

Ricket(bone deformities) in children
bone softening in adults

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19
Q

Vit E deficiency can cause

A

Nervous system degeneration

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20
Q

Vit K deficiency

A

defective blood clotting

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21
Q

Overconsumption of which vitamin is dangerous to our body?

A

Fat soluble vitamins,the excess are deposited in body fat and can accumulate to toxic levels

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22
Q

Water soluble vitamins and their resources

A

B1(Thiamine)
B2(Riboflavin)
B3(niacin)
B5(pantothenic acid)
B6(pyridoxine)
B7(Biotin)
B9(folic acid)
B12(cobalamin)
C(ascorbic acid)

Meats,grains,diary products and vegetables,citrus fruits

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23
Q

Function of B1

A

Coenzyme for removing CO2

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24
Q

Function of B2

A

Component of coenzyme FAD and FMN

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25
Q

Function of B3

A

Component of coenzyme NAD+ and NADP+

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26
Q

Function of B5

A

component of coenzyme A

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27
Q

Function of B6

A

coenzyme used in amino acid metabolism

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28
Q

Function of B7

A

Coenzyme in synthesis of fat,glycogen and amino acids

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29
Q

Function of B9

A

coenzyme in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism

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30
Q

Function of B12

A

Production of nucleic acid and RBC

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31
Q

Function of Vit C

A

Collagen synthesis(connective tissue)
antioxidant

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32
Q

Beri Beri deals with which vitamin deficiency?

A

B1 Thiamine

Beri Beri(tingling,poor condition and reduced heart function)

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33
Q

Dietary mineral are _____ nutrients

A

inorganic (Fe, S)

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34
Q

Main function of Ca and its deficiency

A

Func-bone and tooth formation,blood clotting,nerve and muscle functions

Def-impaired growth, loss of bone mass

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35
Q

Main function of P and its deficiency

A

Func-bone and tooth formation,acid base balance, nucleotide synthesis

Def-weakness,Ca2+ loss and other minerals loss from bone

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36
Q

Main function of S and its deficiency

A

func-component of amino acid

def-impaired growth,fatigue and swelling

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37
Q

Main function of Mg and its deficiency

A

Func-enzyme cofactor,ATP bioenergetics

Def-Nervous system disturbances

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38
Q

Main function of F and its deficiency

A

Func-maintenance of tooth structure

def-higher frequency of tooth decay

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39
Q

Malnutrition is caused because of

A

lacks one or more essential nutrients in diet

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40
Q

Most common type of malnutrition in human

A

protein deficiency (insufficient amt of one or more essential amino acid)

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41
Q

Where can body get chemical energy in person with malnutrition?

A

First ,body breaks down stored carbohydrates and fats to obtain chemical energy and then breaking down proteins

There is no stored chemical energy,muscle shrink and brain become protein-deficient and die

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42
Q

Four stages of food processing

A

Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination

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43
Q

4 main types of feeding mechanisms

A

1)filter feeder-aquatic animals
2)Substrate feeder-animals that live in or on food source
3)Fluid feeder-suck nutrients of fluids from host
4)Bulk feeder-most animals and humans eat large pieces of food

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44
Q

Digestion

A

Food is broken down into smaller molecules in order to absorb

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45
Q

Mechanical digestion

A

breaks the food into smaller pieces increasing surface area

i.e.chewing or grinding

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46
Q

Chemical digestion

A

Cleaves larger molecules into smaller molecules

carbohydrate-glucose
Proteins-amino acids
Nucleic acids-nucleotide
Phospholipids and fats -fatty acids

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47
Q

Chemical digestion is driven by ____ and is the process of _____

A

Enzymes

Enzymatic hydrolysis(breaking binds by adding water)

But in some animals,bacteria live in GI tract carry put chemical digestion

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48
Q

Absorption

A

cell absorbs smaller molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars

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49
Q

Elimination

A

Excretion of undigested material

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50
Q

How intercellular digestion takes place?

A

Cell engulfs solid food by phagocytosis and liquid by pinocytosis and formed vacuoles.
That newly formed vacuoles binds with lysosomes (contains hydrolytic enzymes) hydrolysis takes place and. then digestion occurs

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51
Q

Most animals,hydrolysis take place by_____

A

extracellular digestion

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52
Q

Animal with simple body plan have digestive compartment called_____

A

gastrovascular cavity with a single opening

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53
Q

Animals with complex body plans contains digestive tract with______ and is called_____

A

2 opening-mouth and anus

alimentary canal

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54
Q

Food moves along alimentary canal in ____

A

single direction

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55
Q

What are accessory glands?

A

glands that support in food by secreting digestive juice THROUGH DUCTS into alimentary canal.

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56
Q

Accessory glands that include in human alimentary canal

A

3 pairs of salivary glands
Pancreas
Liver
Gallbladder

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57
Q

Function of teeth in digestion

A

breaks down food into smaller pieces (mechanical breakdown)-that increases surface area and also facilitates swollowing

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58
Q

Food in oral cavity triggers the release of_____by _______

A

saliva by salivary glands

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59
Q

What are major components of saliva?

A

1)mucus-viscous mixture of salts,water, cells and slippery glycoproteins
2)buffer
3)antimicrobial agent

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60
Q

Function of saliva mucus

A

1)lubricate food fir easier swallowing
2)protects gum
3)facilitate taste and smell

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61
Q

Function of salivary buffer

A

prevent tooth decay by neutralizing acid

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62
Q

Function of salivary antimicrobial agent

A

protect against bacteria that enter oral cavity

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63
Q

Saliva contains large amt of enzyme _____

A

amylase-enzyme that break down starch and glycogen

Also contains in small intestine

Starch(glucose polymer of plant )
Glycogen(glucose polymer of animal)

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64
Q

Mechanical digestion and chemical digestion in oral cavity

A

Mechanical digestion-break down of large food into small pieces (TOOTH)

Chemical digestion-breakdown of starch and glycogen(SALIVARY AMYLASE)

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65
Q

How bolus formed?

A

When food is mixed with saliva (facilitated by tongue)

Tongue also push bolus into pharyx

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66
Q

When bolus reaches the pharynx,

A

pharynx contains 2 passageways
1)Esophagus-muscle tube connect to stomach
2)Trachea-connects to lungs

the bolus will pass into esophagus

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67
Q

Within esophagus,food is push by_____

A

peristalsis ,alternative waves of smooth muscle contraction and relaxation

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68
Q

Sphincter that contains in alimentary canal

A

1)sphincter b/w esophagus and stomach
2)sphincter b/w stomach and small intestine
3)2 sphincter b/w rectum and anus;inner involuntary and outer voluntary

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69
Q

Stomach is located ____

A

below diaphragm

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70
Q

Major function of stomach

A

1)storage -can store 2L of food and fluid
2)to make food into liquid suspension

Stomach produces gastric juice and mixes it with food by CHURNING ACTION.

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71
Q

What is a chyme?

A

ingested food mixing with gastric acid

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72
Q

Chemical digestion in stomach

A

1)HCl-disrupts the extracellular matrix that binds cells in meat and plant material and its has low pH (denature proteins and exposing their peptide bonds)

2)Pepsin(protease-protein digesting enzyme)-attack the peptide bonds of proteins

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73
Q

Many enzymes and proteins are denature in high acidic gastric juice.Is pepsin denature in HCl?

A

No, unlike other enzymes,pepsin works best in acidic environment

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74
Q

3 type of cells in stomach and its secretion

A

3 type if cells in gastric glands of stomach

1)Mucous cell-mucus (protects the lining of stomach)
2)Chief cells-pepsinogen(inactive form of pepsin)
3)Parietal cells-HCl

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75
Q

How long it takes to reach food from stomach to small intestine?

A

2-4hr

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76
Q

How long it takes food to reach colon from rectum?

A

12-24hrs

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77
Q

How HCl is secreted by parietal cells?

A

parietal cells use ATP in order to pump H+(proton pump) into stomach lumen.Chloride ions also diffuse into lumen.

Within lumen,H+ and Cl- ions combine to form HCl

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78
Q

How pepsinogen is secreted and activated?

A

Chief cells release pepsinogen into lumen(inactive) and HCl activate pepsinogen into pepsin(active).

Pepsin in turn activates more pepsin (Positive feedback)

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79
Q

Why parietal cells and chief cells is not digested even though they produce acidic gastric juice?

A

Both HCl and pepsin is secreted into lumen of the stomach,not in the cells of gastric glands

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80
Q

Why don’t HCl and pepsin digest the lining of stomach?

A

1)Mucus secreted by gastric glands protect against self-digestion
2)epithelial lining of stomach is added a new layer by cell division in every 3 days

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81
Q

What are ulcers?

A

damaged area of stomach lining (caused by acid-tolerated H.pylori bacteria)

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82
Q

What is largest compartment of alimentary canel?

A

small intestine

83
Q

Most chemical digestion occurs in stomach.True or false?

A

false
in small intestine

84
Q

Mechanical and chemical digestion in Stomach

A

Mechanical-Mixing of food with gastric juice (CHURNING)

Chemical-HCl and PEPSIN

HCl-destroys ECF of meat and plant and also denature proteins
PEPSIN-breaks peptide bonds of polypeptide

85
Q

Parts of small intestine

A

1)Duodenum(main chemical digestion site)

2)Ileum-absorption of nutrients
3)Jejunum-absorption of nutrients

86
Q

What will happen when chyme arrive the duodenum?

A

1)chyme mixes with digestive juices from pancreas,liver and gallbladder

2)with chyme arrival,duodenum stimulates release of secretin(secretin promotes release of bicarb from pancreas)

3)also secretes digestive juices

87
Q

Function of bicarbonate

A

To neutralize acidic chyme and acts as buffer for chemical digestion

88
Q

Digestive juice secreted by duodenum

A

1)Bicarbonate
2)Protease-Trypsin
3)Chymotrypsin

2 and 3 is inactive form and is activated in lumen of duodenum

89
Q

How fat are digested in small intestine?

A

fats-insoluble in water and forms large globules

Fat digestion is facilitated by bile salts(acts as emulsifier to break fat and lipid globules)——>surface area တိုး

90
Q

Bile is secreted by ____ and stored in _____

A

liver
gallbladder

91
Q

Function of bile

A

Bile salts in fat digestion and the destruction of malfunctioning RBC in liver

92
Q

Which part of the small intestine is mainly responsible for nutrient absorption?

A

ileum and jejunum

93
Q

Why small intestine has large surface area?

A

Large folds in intestinal lining and including finger liker projections called villi.The villi itself contain many microscopic projections called microvilli.

surface area inside stomach is as the size of tennis court

94
Q

Enormous surface area of small intestine greatly increases _____

A

the rate of nutrient absorption

95
Q

Amino acids and sugars are transported into the blood by _____

A

passive transport but active transport allows more absorption

eg.fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion and other amino acids are absorbed by either passive or active

96
Q

Amino acids and sugar diffuse into blood by_____

A

capillaries and veins

97
Q

The capillaries and veins with nutrient-rich blood is converged into_____

A

hepatic portal vein-blood vessel directly lead to liver

From liver—->heart——>other organs

98
Q

Advantages of nutrient first reach to liver

A

1)liver regulates the distribution of nutrients to other organs
2)being the main detoxification site,liver can detoxify the toxic substances included in nutrients

99
Q

All nutrients leave the small intestine by bloodstream and pass through liver for processing.True or false?

A

false

digestion of fats takes a different path

100
Q

Fats are digested by ____ enzyme

A

lipase

101
Q

Fat is digested as______ in small intestine

A

fatty acids and monoglycerides

102
Q

What happen when fatty acids and glycerol is absorbed by epithelial cells?

A

It recombines to form triglycerides and then coated with phospholipids, cholesterol and protein to form chylomicrons

103
Q

Chylomicrons are _____

A

soluble in water

104
Q

In existing small intestine,chylomicrons reach_____

A

lacteal(a vessel at the core of villi and also a part of lymphatic system)

105
Q

Lymph containing chylomicrons pass into_____

A

larger vessels of the lymphatic system and eventually into the large veins that return directly to the heart

106
Q

Small intestine reabsorb _____

A

water by osmosis (when sodium and other ions pass into lumen)

107
Q

Parts of the large intestine

A

Colon
Caecum
Rectum

108
Q

Small intestine connects to large intestine at _____

A

T-shaped junctions

One arm of T-rectum and anus
Other arm-caecum(a pouch)

109
Q

Is caecum important in human?

A

No,it is important in animals that feed on plant materials

in humans ,caecum is small

110
Q

Finger-shaped extension of caecum is called____ and it serves as ____

A

appendix

reservoir for symbiotic microbes

111
Q

Main function of colon

A

Water reabsorption

112
Q

It takes____ to pass the colon

A

12-24hrs

113
Q

What will happen when colon lining is irritated (eg.bacterial infection)?

A

feces pass so quickly and less water reabsorb leading to diarrhea

114
Q

Explain constipation

A

When feces remain so long in colon,more water reabsorb and feces become more compact

115
Q

The material that cannot be digested in colon____

A

cellulose(plant fiber)

116
Q

Function of rectum and anus

A

R-storage of feces
A-eliminate feces

117
Q

Chemical digestion of carbohydrates

A

In oral cavity,pharynx and esophagus——>
polysaccharides (starch,glycogen) into smaller polysaccharides or maltose by SALIVARY AMYLASE

In stomach——>no reaction
In small intestine ——->smaller polysaccharides into disaccharides by PANCREATIC AMYLASES(pancreatic enzymes)
In small intestine——>Disaccharides into monosaccharides by ENZYMES FROM INTESTINAL EPITHELIUM

118
Q

Chemical digestion of proteins

A

In oral cavity——>no protein digestion
In stomach——>Proteins into small polypeptides by PEPSIN
In small intestine——->Small poly peptides into smaller polypeptides by TRYPSIN AND CHYMOTRYPSIN(Pancreatic enzymes) and into small peptides by
PANCREATIC CARBOXYPEPTIDASE
In small intestine——->small peptides into amino acids by DIPEPTIDASES,CARBOXYPEPTIDASE,AMINOPEPTIDASE(enzyems form intestinal spithelium)

119
Q

Chemical digestion of Nucleic acid

A

In oral cavity—->no digestion
In stomach——>no digestive
In small intestine(pancreatic enzymes)—>DNA and RNA into Nucleotides by PANCREATIC NUCLEASES
In small intestine (epithelial enzymes)—->Nucleotides into nucleosides by NUCLEOTIDASES and into nitrogenous bases,sugars and phosphate by NUCLEOSIDASE AND PHOPHATASES

120
Q

Chemical digestion of fat

A

In oral cavity—->no digestion
In Stomach——>no digestion
In small intestine(pancreatic enzymes)—>fat(triglycerides) into glycerol,fatty acids and monoglycerides by PANCREATIC LIPASE
In small intestine(epithelial enzymes)—->no digestion

121
Q

The action of the digestive system is controlled by_____ nervous system

A

enteric nervous system-network of neurons connected to digestive system

122
Q

Gastrin is released by _____ and acts on ______ to _______

A

Stomach
Stomach to release gastric juice

(foodဝင်လာတဲ့အခါstomach wall stretchဖြစ်သွားရင် gastrinထွက် —>bloodstreamထဲရောက်ပြီးမှstomach ကိုactionပြန်ပေး)

123
Q

Why herbivore and omnivores has longer alimentary canal than carnivores?

A

Plant materials are more difficult to digest than meat because it contains cellulose .Longer GI tract—->longer digestion and more surface area

124
Q

CCK is released by ____ and stimulate_____

A

Cholecystokinin is released by Duodenum

and stimulates Pancreas to release enzymes and Gallbladder to secrete bile

125
Q

Secretin is released by_____ and stimulates _____

A

S cells of duodenum

Pancreas to release bicarbonate(HCO3-)

bicarb neutralize chyme

126
Q

CCK and secretin is released in respond to _____

A

Chyme -acidic mixture of digested food

127
Q

How secretin and CCK slow digestion when chyme is rich in fat?

A

If chyme is rich in fats,high levels of secretin and CCK acts in stomach to inhibit peristalsis and secretion of gastric juices leading to slow digestion

128
Q

What happen if diets contain more energy-rich molecules than it needs?

A

body stores excess energy

In humans, excess energy are stored in the form of glycogen in liver and muscle.

129
Q

How stored energy are expanded when body lack in food?

A

Liver glycogen—->muscle glycogen—->fat

130
Q

Normal blood glucose concentration

A

70-110mg/100 ml

131
Q

Why glucose homeostasis is important?

A

glucose is the major fuel for cellular respiration and key sources of carbon for biosynthesis

132
Q

Glucose homeostasis relies on 2 hormones:____ and _____

A

Insulin-glucagon(2 antagonistic hormones)

antagonistic-opposite effects

133
Q

How insulin lower the blood glucose concentration?

A

When blood glucose lvl is above normal range,insulin stimulate the uptake of glucose from the blood to the body cells so decreasing blood glucose conc

134
Q

How glucagon rise blood glucose lvl?

A

when glucose is below normal range, glucagon stimulates release of glucose from stored cells(i.e.liver cells)

135
Q

___ is the primary site for action of insulin and glucagon

A

Liver

136
Q

Regulation of glucose concentration after meal

A

after mealမှာဆိုbloodထဲမှာ glucose များ——>insulinလဲများ—->insulin promotes glycogen formation from glucose(Hepatic portal vein)

137
Q

Regulation of glucose concentration between meal

A

Between mealမှာဆိုhepatic portal veinမှာ glucose နည်း—>glucagon stimulate liver to break down glycogen into glucose

138
Q

Is insulin acts on all cells to glucose uptake ?

A

No ,insulin acts on nearly all cells EXCEPT BRAIN CELLS

Brain cells can take glucose with or without insulin

139
Q

Glucagon and insulin is produced by _____

A

Pancreas-Islets of Lengerhans

alpha cells-glucagon
beta cells-insulin

140
Q

Pancreas has both____ and ______ action

A

exocrine-bicarb and digestive enzymes

endocrine-insulin,glucagon

141
Q

Main difference b/w Type 1 and Type 2 DM

A

Type 1-insulin is not produced (autoimmune disease that destroys beta cells)

Type 2-insulin is produced but receptors defect

142
Q

Hormones for appetite acts on_____

A

satiety center in brain

143
Q

_____ hormone stimulate appetite and _____ hormones suppress appetite

A

ghrelin+
Insulin-
Leptin-
PYY-

144
Q

What are the two reasons required for animals to eat food?

A

To obtain ATP and get raw materials for biosynthesis.

145
Q

What are the two types of organic molecules that needs to be obtained from diet

A

A source of carbon (such as sugar) and nitrogen from proteins

146
Q

What are essential nutrients?

A

Cannot be synthesized in the body, have to obtain from the diet

147
Q

What are essential amino acids?

A

Animals cannot synthesize these A/A. Plants and microorganism can. Most animals have the enzymes to synthesize about the half of the organic nitrogen.
Adult human needs 8 essential amino acid . ALL HIS TV MPT ( histidine not included)
Human infants need one more-HISTIDINE
IMPORTANT- human body can synthesize histidine and arginine but not in sufficient amounts so have to be supplied by diet

148
Q

Does the animal products and plant product contain complete amino acid ?

A

Animal products such as meat, egg, cheese contain all the essential amino acids.
Some plant products are missing one or more acids, but eating a variety of plant proteins is sufficient to obtain all the essential A/A

149
Q

What are essential fatty acids and why cant animals synthesize them?

A

Animals require fatty acids to form plasma membrane, store fat.
Animals lack enzyme that can form the double bonds in certain required fatty acids. Therefore, need to be supplied from the diet.
Omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids
Include ALA, DHA, EPA omega 3
Also include Linoleic acid and Arachidonic acid (Omega 6). Sis in LA

150
Q

Name fat soluble vitamins and their func

A

Vitamin A, D ,E , K
Vitamin A- visual pigments of the eyes
Vitamin D- require for calcium absorption and bone formation
Vitamin E-prevent damage to cell membranes Vitamin K- important in blood clotting

151
Q

What types of vitamins might be harmful , if over consumed?

A

Fat soluble vitamins because over consuming water soluble Vit can be excreted from the urines

152
Q

What are the sources of vitamin A, D, E , K and what are the consequences of their deficiency?

A

Vitamin A- green and orange vegetables, fruits and dairy products
Blindness, skin disorder, impaired immunity
Vitamin D- dairy products and egg yolk
-a-
Rickets in children(bone deformities) and bone softening in adults
Vitamin E- vegetable oil, nut and seeds ooo O o o Degenerative nervous system
Vitamin K- green veggie and tea, also made by colon bacteria
Defective blood clotting

153
Q

Names of the water soluble vitamins
Their sources

A

B1 Thiamine
B2 riboflavin
B3 niacin
B5 pentotanic acid B6 Pyridoxine
B7 biotin
B9 folic acid B12 cobalamine

Meat-vegetables-grains-dairy products

154
Q

What vitamin deficiency is associated with Beri beri?

A

Beri beri- tingling, poor coordination reduced heart func Associated with vitamin B1 thiamine

155
Q

What happens when there is vit c deficiency ?

A

Scurvy- degeneration of skin and teeth, and delayed wound healing

156
Q

What are the func of chlorine, and their deficiency?

A

Func- used to produce HCL acid in the gastr ic and nervous system , acid- base balance and osmotic balance
Impair- reduced appetite, mood disturbance ,muscle cramp

157
Q

Magnesium source, functions and deficiency

A

Magnesium - vegetables, grains
Func- cofactors , ATP bioenergetics Deficiency- nervous system disturbance

158
Q

Why does malnutrition occur?

A

Lack of one or more essential nutrients.

159
Q

What is neural tube defects and how does it happen? Diagnosis?

A

Neural tube defect- tissue fail to enclose the developing brain and spinal cord in infants.
Reason- women with malnutrition gives birth Diagnosis- supplement folic acid in diet

160
Q

What are the four stages of the digestive system ?

A

Ingestion , digestion, absorption and elimination

161
Q

In digestion , how many processes are there?

A
  1. Mechanical digestion - chewing increases the surface area
  2. Chemical digestion - break down into small macromolecules
162
Q

What is absorption ?

A

Absorption of small molecules such as amino acids and simples sugars

163
Q

What is intracellular digestion?

A

A few animals such as sponge digest in this well.
Food is engulfed by pinocytosis or phagocytosis—— >lysosomes come fuse the food——> hydrolysis enzyme digest the food in the compartment

164
Q

Extracellular digestion and how many types ?

A
  1. Gastrovascular
    Gastric- digest food+ vascular- spread nutrients throughout the body

A. Food enters the gastrovascular cavity, gastrodermis secretes the enzymes from specialized glands cells, digest food particles, food particles are next engulfed into food vacuoles—-> digestion, remaining food particles such as exoskeleton are eliminated from the mouth
2. Alimentary canal

165
Q

What is the difference between the alimentary and gastrovascular?

A

Animals with the complex body structures have the alimentary canals- with a mouth opening and an anus,
Mammals- alimentary canal present

166
Q

What are the names of the accessory glands that aid in the digestion of the food in the alimentary canal?

A

Three salivary glands + three glands - pancreas , gall bladder and the liver

167
Q

Role of the stomach

A

Storage and process food into liquid suspension by the action of gastric acid

168
Q

How is stomach protected from the self digestion?

A

The stomach lining renews every three days, by adding an epithelial layer

169
Q

What is churning?

A

With the contraction and relaxation of the stomach, gastric juice brought into contact with all the stomach contents

Peristalsis also stimulates the passing of the food from the stomach to the small intestine every 2 to 6 hours, allowed by the sphincter located at the opening of the small intestine

170
Q

Is small intestine shorter than the large intestine?

A

No, according to diameter, small length is the longest compartment of the alimentary system

171
Q

When the food enters the duodenum, what enzymes are released by the pancreas?

A

Pancreas secreted bicarbonates from the stimulus of the hormone secretin.

  1. Different molecules for different digestive enzymes

Eg. Trypsin and chymotrypsin for proteins
Lipase for lipids
Nuclease for N/A
Pancreatic amylase for carbohydrates

172
Q

Apart from pancreatic enzymes, what other cells assist in digestion of the food in duodenum.

A

Epithelial lining of the duodenum also secretes the enzymes. Some are secreted into the lumens of the duodenum and whereas others bound to the surface of the epithelial cells. Together with the pancreatic enzymes, they complete the digestion in the duodenum

173
Q

How are fats digested ?

A

Fats are water insoluble so difficult to be digested.

Bile emulsify fats and break apart fat and lipid globules_ ——> pancreatic lipase digest the fats

Other funcs of biles- destruction of the red blood cells that are no longer functional .

Biles are secretion of the liver, and stored in the gall bladder

174
Q

Where does absorption take place?

A

Ileum and jejunum the remaining part of the small intestine

Microvilli present at the epithelial cells- increases the absorption rate

175
Q

Feces contain cellulose fibres. True or false?

A

True, no caloric value but help in peristalsis

176
Q

How many spinsters do rectum have?

A

Two. Inner involuntary and outer voluntary

Strong contraction of the colon urge to defecate/ filling the stomach triggers the effect so the urge to defecate follows a meal

177
Q

How many teeth in mammals

A

32
Incisors canine premolar and molar
8. 4. 8. 12

178
Q

Carnivore animals have ——— stomach

A

Expandable

They eat as much as meat while they can catch prey and store it in their expandable stomach, eg python-ingest a whole gazelle

179
Q

Herbivores and omnivores have ———— alimentary canal compared to carnivores

A

Longer

Because plants are more difficult to digest than meat because it contain the cell walls. Therefore, longer alimentary canal allow more time and surface area for absorption

180
Q

How does coexistence of bacteria in the human intestine benefit both parties ??

A

Bacteria in the human intestine produce vitamins such as biotin B7, Folic Acid B9 and vitamin K and it also develops the innate immune system , an immune system in which human are born with , and develop intestinal epithelium.

In turn, bacteria benefit from the host by stable host environment and supply of nutrients

181
Q

Microbiomes are the same regardless of diet, disease and age. True or false ?

A

False

182
Q

Why does H pylori causes stomach ulcers?

A

Stomach tissue uninfected and infected tested in the lab——> H pylori removes all other bacterial species from the stomach

There is now evidence that changes in the microbiome can play a role in obesity, nutritional deficiencies, diabe- tes, cardiovascular disease, and inflammatory diseases of the digestive system. There are even effects on brain func- tion and mood

183
Q

How do herbivores digest cellulose without cellulase enz?

A

Many herbivores host symnbiotic bacteria and protists in the fermentation chambers in their alimentary canals. These bacteria can digest cellulose.
ANSWER

Cellulose breaks down into glucose and other sugars.

In some cases, bacteria uses glucose to prof cells nutrients such as A/A and vitamins

184
Q

Where do symbiotic bacteria reside in the alimentary canals

A

In some animals- cecum.
Some——> large muscular pouch ( an esophageal pouch) Some ———> large intestine and Caecum

Therefore, nutrition are absorbed mainly in the small intestine, so nutrients from the symbiotic bacteria are passsed to the feces. The reason why rabbits and other animals eat feaces then passing the food through the alimentary canal second time

185
Q

Can humans digest cellulose?

A

No.

186
Q

Earthworm do not have mouth or digestive system. How do they survive?

A

Microbes’ nutrients by the action of chemoautotrophy by microbes using oxygen,carbon dioxide , HS, and NO3

187
Q

Is the alimentary canal always active and hormones are always released?

A

No. Large gaps between the meals, alimentary canal each part functions upon the food arrival

188
Q

Normal conc of glucose in blood

A

70-110 mg/ml

189
Q

Glucose homeostasis maintained how?

A

Antagonistic actions of insulin and glucagon

190
Q

Insulin acts on ————cells and does not act on the ——

A

Insulin acts on almost every cells to ensure the uptake of glucose from blood.

Exception- doesnt act on brain ——> brain can take up glucose whether or not insulin is present. Therefore, even if the supplies are low, brain almost always has access to the circulating fuels

191
Q

From which cells are insulin and glucagon secreted from the pancreatic cells?

A

Glucagon ——> alpha cells
Insulin———> beta cells

Alpha and beta cells of the Islets of Langerham

192
Q

Pancreas has funcs in both ——— and —— systems

A

Endocrine and digestive

2 percent only secrete hormone

98 percent secrete bicarbonates and enzymes into the small intestine via the pancreatic ducts

193
Q

Why does DM occur?

A

Decrease response to insulin or deficiency of insulin

Instead, fat becomes the main substrate for metabolic reactions. In extreme cases, acidic metabolites accumulate during fat breakdown accumulate in the blood, threatening life by lowering blood pH and depleting sodium and potassium in the body

194
Q

Symptoms of the DM

A
  1. Glucose in Urea
  2. More water secretion copious urination
195
Q

Type 1 diabetes cause

A

Autoimmune disease——> destroy beta cells of pancreas——> cannot secrete insulin
Treatment- injection of insulin several times a day

Appears during childhood

196
Q

Cause of type 2 diabetes

A

Target cells do not response to insulin and fail to take up glucose from the blood.

May be genetic or due to sedentary life style and obesity

The resistance to insulin signaling in type 2 diabetes is sometimes due to a genetic defect in the insulin receptor or the insulin response pathway. In many cases, however, events in target cells suppress activity of an otherwise functional response pathway. One source of this suppression appears to be inflammatory signals generated by the innate immune system

197
Q

——- hormone stimulate appetite and —— hormones inhibit appetite

A

Ghrelin hormone by stomach wall stimulate appetite by stimulating the satiety centre in the brain

Insulin, Leptin hormone - produced by adipose fat, and PYY- produced by small intestine after meal suppress appetite

198
Q

During fasting by muslims , what type of cells enable to do long hours fasting?

ACTH
Alpha cells of islets of langerhams
Beta cells of islets of langerhams Hypothalamus stimulating the AP hormones

A

Alpha cells

199
Q

Glycogen structure

A

Like amylopectin but highly branched therefore packed tightly together.

Alpha 1,4 + Alpha 1,6

200
Q

Actions of insulin

A
  1. GLUT 4 transporter binds to the cell membrane and uptake the glucose from the blood

GLUT transporter-glucose transporter

  1. Glucose kinase action phosphorylates glucose to prevent it from leaving the cell cannot bind to GLUT receptor
  2. Stimulate PFK hormone to stimulate the glycogen synthesis in the liver
201
Q

Other than glycogenolysis, how can glucose be increased in the liver from the glucose?

A

Gluconeogenesis

202
Q

A site with most digestion is at ———

A

Duodenum

203
Q

Blood is supplied to GI tract via

A

splanchnic circulation

204
Q

Blood is supplied to GI tract via

A

splanchnic circulation

Physiology (9 decks)

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