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Anatomy and Physiology > Digestive System > Flashcards

Digestive System Flashcards

1
Q

Digestive System Functions

A
  • Ingestion—taking in food
  • Digestion—breaking food into nutrient molecules
  • Absorption—movement of nutrients into the bloodstream
  • Defecation—excretes to rid the body of indigestible waste
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2
Q

Two Main Groups of Organs

A

Digestive tract (gastrointestinal, or GI, tract)
 Continuous, coiled, hollow tube
 These organs ingest, digest, absorb, defecate
 Begins with the mouth –> ends with the anus

Accessory digestive organs
 Include teeth, tongue, and several large digestive organs
 Assist digestion in various ways
 Connected to the GI tract by ducts
• Secrete chemicals which aid in chemical breakdown and absorption of food

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3
Q

Organs of the Digestive Tract

A 
The digestive tract is a continuous, coiled, hollow tube that runs through the ventral cavity from stomach to anus 
o	Mouth 
o	Pharynx 
o	Oesophagus 
o	Stomach 
o	Small / Large intestine 
o	Anus
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4
Q

Anatomy of the Mouth

A

Mouth (oral cavity)
o Mucous membrane–lined cavity

Lips (labia)
o Protect the anterior opening
o Assist with injection by grabbing food and pulling into mouth
o Under voluntary control

Cheeks
o Form the lateral walls of oral cavity

Hard palate
o Forms the anterior roof of oral cavity

Soft palate
o Forms the posterior roof oral cavity
o Formed from a fold of mucous membrane

Uvula
o Fleshy projection of the soft palate
o Helps prevent food from entering nasal cavity when swallowing

Vestibule
o Space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally

Oral cavity proper
o Area contained by the teeth

Tongue
o Attached at hyoid bone and styloid processes of the skull, and by the lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
o Lingual Frenulum –> anchors tongue to floor of mouth and limits posterior movements

Tonsils
o	Part of the bodies defence system 
o	Palatine
	Located at posterior end of oral cavity 
o	Lingual
	Located at the base of the tongue
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5
Q

Functions of the Mouth

A
  • Mastication (chewing) of food
  • Tongue mixes masticated food with saliva
    o Chemical breakdown of food
  • Tongue initiates swallowing
    o Propulsion by pushing food
  • Taste buds on the tongue allow for taste
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6
Q

Pharynx

A

Serves as a passageway for foods, fluids, and air

Food passes from the mouth posteriorly into the:
o Nasopharynx
 Connects nasal cavity to the oropharynx
o Oropharynx
 Posterior to oral cavity
 Foods, liquids and air passes through
o Laryngopharynx
 Below the oropharynx and continuous with the oesophagus

Food is propelled to the oesophagus by two skeletal muscle layers in the pharynx
o Longitudinal outer layer
o Circular inner layer

Alternating contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis) propel the food through pharynx inferiorly

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7
Q

Oesophagus

A

Anatomy
o About 10 inches long
o Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
o Passes through opening in diaphragm

Physiology
o Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing) to the stomach
 When food reaches the top of the oesophagus following swallowing –> a wave of peristalsis beings –> pushes food into the stomach
o Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the pharynx)

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8
Q

Layers of Tissue in the Digestive Tract Organs

A 
Summary of the four layers from innermost to outermost, from oesophagus to the large intestine (detailed next) 
o	Mucosa
o	Submucosa
o	Muscularis externa 
o	Serosa
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9
Q

Mucosa

A

Innermost, moist membrane consisting of:
o Surface epithelium that is mostly simple columnar epithelium
 Except for oesophagus — stratified squamous epithelium
 Covered in mucous secreted by cells or glands

o Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria)
 Contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and mucous secreting vessels (some parts of the body)

o Scanty smooth muscle layer (thin)
- Lines the cavity (known as the lumen)

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10
Q

Submucosa

A
  • Just beneath the mucosa
  • Soft, irregular dense connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, and lymphatic vessels
    o Glands and tissues secrete substances that aid in secretion and absorption
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11
Q

Muscularis Externa - Smooth Muscle

A
  • Surrounds submucosal layer
  • Propels food through Digestive Tract by peristalsis
  • Performs mechanical digestion occurs
    o Churns food
  • Has two layers:
    o Inner circular layer
    o Outer longitudinal layer

o Layer of nerve fibers between the layers regulate the activity of each layer

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12
Q

Serosa

A
  • Thin, serous membrane which helps to reduce friction
  • Outermost layer of the wall
  • Contains fluid-producing cells

Divided into:
o Visceral peritoneum
 Innermost layer that is continuous with the outermost layer
o Parietal peritoneum
 Outermost layer that lines the abdominopelvic cavity by way of the mesentery

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13
Q

Digestive Tract Nerve Plexuses

A

Digestive tract wall contains two intrinsic nerve plexuses that are part of the autonomic nervous system
o Submucosal nerve plexus
o Myenteric nerve plexus

  • Regulate mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract organs
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14
Q

Stomach

A
  • C-shaped organ located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
  • Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon) of food when full
  • Varies from 15 – 25 cm in length

Diameter and volume depend on how much food it contains
o Rugae
 Internal folds of the mucosa present when the stomach is empty

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15
Q

Stomach Regions

A

Cardial (cardia)
 Near the heart and surrounds the cardio oesophageal sphincter (allows food to enter from oesophagus)

Fundus
 Expanded portion lateral to the cardiac region

Body
 Midportion
 Greater curvature is the convex lateral surface
 Lesser curvature is the concave medial surface
 As it shrinks anteriorly –> body becomes pyloric antrum –> funnel shaped pylorus

Pylorus
 Funnel-shaped terminal end
 Continuous with small intestine through the pyloric sphincter or pyloric valve

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16
Q

Stomach Omentum

A

Lesser Omentum
o Double layer of the peritoneum
o Extends from liver to the lesser curvature of stomach

Greater Omentum
o Another extension of the peritoneum
o Covers the abdominal organs and attaches to posterior boy wall
o Fat insulates, cushions, and protects abdominal organs
o Contains collections of lymphoid follicles
 Contains macrophages and defensive cells of the immune system

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17
Q

Structure of the Stomach Mucosa

A
  • Simple columnar epithelium composed almost entirely of mucous cells
  • Mucous cells produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus
    o Clings to the stomach mucosa and protections from damage against acid
  • Dotted by gastric pits leading to gastric glands that secrete gastric juice, including:
    o Intrinsic factor, which is needed for vitamin B12 absorption in the small intestine
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18
Q

Stomach Mucosa Cells

A

Chief cells
o Produce inactive protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)

Parietal cells
o Produce hydrochloric acid that activates enzymes
 Conversion of pepsinogen and pepsin
o Makes stomach contents acidic

Mucous neck cells
o Produce thin acidic mucus (different from the mucus produced by mucous cells of the mucosa) with an unknown function

Enteroendocrine cells
o Produce local hormones such as gastrin

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19
Q

Stomach Functions

A
  • Temporary storage tank for food
  • Site of food breakdown
    o Three layers of muscle allow to move food along tract and breakdown
  • Chemical breakdown of protein begins
    o Most occurs within the pyloric region
  • Delivers chyme (thick) (processed food) to the small intestine via the pyloric sphincter
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20
Q

Small Intestine

A
  • The body’s major digestive organ
  • Longest portion of the digestive tract (2–4 m, or 7–13 feet, in a living person)
  • Site of nutrient absorption into the blood and all water absorption
  • Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
  • Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery
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21
Q

Small Intestine Subdivisions

A
  • Duodenum (5%)
  • Jejunum (40%)
  • Ileum (60%)
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22
Q

Small Intestine - Chemical Digestion

A
  • Begins in the small intestine –> can only process a small amount of food at a time –> pyloric sphincter controls movement of chyme into small intestine –> prevents small intestine from being overwhelmed
  • Enzymes produced by intestinal cells and pancreas are carried to the duodenum by pancreatic ducts
    o Chemical breakdown of food ends in the pancreatic ducts
  • Bile, formed by the liver, enters the duodenum via the bile duct
  • Hepatopancreatic ampulla is the location where the main pancreatic duct and bile ducts join
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23
Q

Small Intestine Structural Modifications

A

Increase surface area for food absorption

Decrease in number toward the end of the small intestine
o Villi
 Finger like projections formed by the mucosa
• House a capillary bed and lacteal
 Contains tubular indentations (intestinal crypts)
 Each contain a lymphatic capillary (lacteal) as well as blood capillaries

o Microvilli
 Tiny projections of the plasma membrane (brush border enzymes)

o Circular folds (plicae circulares)
 Deep folds of mucosa and submucosa

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24
Q

Small Intestine - Peyer’s Patches

A
  • Collections of lymphatic tissue
  • Located in submucosa
  • Increase in number toward the end of the small intestine
  • More are needed there because remaining food residue contains much bacteria
    o Must be prevented from entering the blood stream
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25
Q

Large Intestine

A
  • Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at 1.5 m, than the small intestine
  • Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus
  • Main functions –> propulsion and elimination of waste

Absorption of water, electrolytes and some vitamins are additional but limited functions

Distinctive Feature
 Presence of large colon ease bacteria
• Responsible for B vitamin synthesis and Vitamin K

Subdivisions 
o	Cecum
o	Appendix 
o	Colon 
o	Rectum
o	Anal canal
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26
Q

Cecum

A
  • Saclike first part of the large intestine (first to receive food)

Connects to large intestine by the ileocecal valve
o Usually, closed –> opens in response to gastrin (released by the stomach)
o Partially controlled by the nervous system
o When open –> digestive remnants of food travel from the ileum to the cecum

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27
Q

Appendix

A

o Hangs from the cecum

Accumulation of lymphoid tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
 Contains lymphocytes that help protect the body from infection organisms
• Does not protect against appendicitis

28
Q

Colon

A

Ascending
o Travels up right side of abdomen and makes a turn at the right colic (hepatic) flexure

Transverse
o Travels across the abdominal cavity and turns at the left colic (splenic) flexure

Descending
o Travels down the left side

Sigmoid
o S-shaped region; enters the pelvis –> exits at the rectum

Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal are located in the pelvis

29
Q

Anal Canal

A
  • Anal canal ends at the anus

Anus
o Opening of the large intestine
o External anal sphincter
 Formed by skeletal muscle and is voluntary
o Internal anal sphincter
 Formed by smooth muscle and is involuntary
o These sphincters are normally closed due to constriction except during defecation

The large intestine delivers indigestible food residues to the body’s exterior

30
Q

Large Intestine

A
  • No villi are present
  • Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus to lubricate the passage of feces to the end of the digestive tract
  • Longitudinal layer of the muscularis externa layer is reduced to three bands of muscle, called teniae coli
  • These bands of muscle cause the wall to pucker into haustra (pocketlike sacs)
31
Q

Accessory Digestive Organs

A
  • Teeth
  • Salivary glands
  • Pancreas
  • Liver
  • Gallbladder
32
Q

Salivary Glands

A
  • Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth #

Located within tissue surrounding the oral cavity
o Parotid glands (largest)
 Found anterior to the ears
 Mumps affect these salivary glands
o Submandibular glands
 Lie on the medial side of the mandible
o Sublingual glands
 Both submandibular and sublingual glands empty saliva into the floor of the mouth through small ducts

33
Q

Saliva

A
  • Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
  • Composed mostly of water
  • Helps to moisten and bind food together into a mass called a bolus
Contains: 
o	Salivary amylase
	Begins starch digestion
	Breaks down complex carbohydrates into shorter chains of sugar chains   
o	Lysozymes and antibodies
	Inhibit bacteria 
o	Lingual lipase 
	Initiates the breakdown of fats

Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

34
Q

Pancreas

A
  • Functions as an exocrine and endocrine gland
  • Soft, pink triangular gland
  • Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
    o Mostly retroperitoneal
  • Secretes products into the blood and lumen
  • Extends across the abdomen from spleen to duodenum
  • Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
  • Secretes enzymes and pancreatic juice into the duodenum
    o Pancreatic juices contain digestive enzymes (proteases –> break down proteins / amylases –> breaks down starches / lipases –> break down lipids)
  • Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme coming from stomach
  • Hormones produced by the pancreas
    o Insulin
    o Glucagon

o Involved in regulating blood glucose levels

35
Q

Liver

A
  • Largest gland in the body
  • Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
  • Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by the falciform ligament
36
Q

Liver - Digestive Role to Produce Bile

A
  • Bile leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct and enters duodenum through the bile duct
    o Duodenum uses bile to breakdown lipids

Bile is yellow-green, watery solution containing:
o Bile salts and bile pigments (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin)
 Are emulsifying agents –> greatly increases surface area of fats and assisting breakdown by lipase enzymes
o Cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes
o Makes about 1L/day at a constant rate –> only needed following food intake

Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats

37
Q

Gall Bladder

A

Green sac found in a shallow fossa in the inferior surface of the liver
o Releases bile after a meal that contains fat
 Controlled by several bile sphincters (bile sphincters, pancreatic sphincter and hepatopancreatic sphincter)

o When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder
o While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated by the removal of water

o When chyme containing fat enters the duodenum –> gallbladder contracts –> the gallbladder spurts out stored bile
 Common bile duct and hepatopancreatic duct sphincter relax to allow bile to flow to duodenum and emulsify the fat

38
Q

Overview of Gastrointestinal Processes and Controls

A

Essential processes of the GI tract

  • Ingestion
  • Propulsion
  • Segmentation
  • Absorption
  • Defecation
39
Q

Ingestion

A

 Placing of food into the mouth

 Include teeth, lips and tongue

40
Q

Propulsion

A

Movement of foods from one region of the digestive system to another

Initiated by swallowing at the pharynx

Peristalsis
o Symmetrical, alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that squeeze food along the GI tract

41
Q

Segmentation

A

Movement of materials back and forth to foster mixing in the small intestine
 Mixes the materials with the digestive juices
 Mechanical digestion

42
Q

Mechanical Breakdown

A

Examples
• Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
• Churning of food in the stomach
• Segmentation in the small intestine

Mechanical digestion prepares food for further degradation by enzymes

43
Q

Chemical Breakdown

A

Digestion occurs when enzymes chemically break down large molecules into their building blocks

Each major food group uses different enzymes
• Carbohydrates are broken down to monosaccharides (simple sugars)
o Three monosaccharides are common in diet –> glucose, fructose and galactose
o Blood Sugar Level –> extremely dependent on glucose
o Fructose –> found in fruits
o Galactose –> found in milk

o Only carbs GI tract breaks down
 Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose and Starch
 Starch is a polysaccharide

• Proteins are broken down to amino acids
o Intermediate product is poly peptides

• Fats are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol

44
Q

Absoprtion

A

 End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph
 Food must enter mucosal cells and then move into blood or lymph capillaries

45
Q

Defectation

A

 Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in the form of feces
• Exits the body through the anus

46
Q

Activities occuring in mouth, pharynx and oesophagus - Ingestion and Breakdown

A

Food is placed into the mouth
 Physically broken down by chewing
 Mixed with saliva, which is released in response to mechanical pressure and psychic stimuli
 Salivary amylase begins starch digestion –> chemically breaks down into maltose

Essentially, no food absorption occurs in the mouth

47
Q

Activities occuring in mouth, pharynx and oesophagus - Propulsion, Swallowing and Peristalsis

A

o Pharynx and oesophagus have no digestive function
 Serve as passageways to the stomach

Pharynx functions in swallowing (deglutition)
 Two phases of swallowing
• Buccal phase
o Voluntary
o Occurs in the mouth
o Food is formed into a bolus
o The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the tongue

• Pharyngeal-oesophageal phase
o Involuntary transport of the bolus by peristalsis
 Controlled by the PNS promote the mobility of digestive organs from this point on
o Nasal and respiratory passageways are blocked
 Tongue blocks mouth
 Soft palate blocks respiratory passageways
o Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the stomach
 Moved through pharynx and into oesophagus by peristaltic contractions of the muscle walls
• Longitudinal –> Circular
o The cardio oesophageal sphincter is opened when food presses against it
 Allows food to enter when open

48
Q

Activities of the Stomach - Food Break Down

A

o Gastric juice is regulated by neural and hormonal factors

o Presence of food or rising pH causes the release of the hormone gastrin

Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce:
 Protein-digesting enzymes (e.g., pepsinogen)
 Mucus
 Hydrochloric acid

Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach contents very acidic
 Can be dangerous as both hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes have the ability to eat the stomach themselves –> causing ulcers
• As long as there is mucous –> stomach is protected

Acidic pH
 Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion
 Provides a hostile environment for microorganisms

Protein-digestion enzymes
 Pepsin
• An active protein-digesting enzyme
 Rennin
• Works on digesting milk protein in infants; not produced in adults
o Converts to substance looking like sour milk
o Alcohol and aspirin are virtually the only items absorbed in the stomach

49
Q

Food Propulsoin

A

Peristalsis:
o Waves of peristalsis occur from the fundus to the pylorus, forcing food past the pyloric sphincter
 Force increases as food approaches the pyloric sphincter
• Helps grind food into chyme

Grinding:
o The pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine (3 ml at a time)

Retropulsion:
o Peristaltic waves close the pyloric sphincter, forcing contents back into the stomach; the stomach empties in 4–6 hours

When duodenum is filled with chyme and its wall is stretched, a nervous reflex occurs
o Puts the brakes on gastric activity –> slows the emptying of the stomach by inhibiting the vagus nerve –> tightens the pyloric sphincter –> allows time for intestinal processing to catch up

50
Q

Activities of the Small Intestine - Chyme Breakdown and Absorption

A

o Chyme reaching the small intestine is only partially digested
o Process of chemical digestion is accelerated –> as food moves through the small intestine

Intestinal enzymes from the brush border function to:
 Break double sugars into simple sugars
 Complete some protein digestion

Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic enzymes help to complete digestion of all food groups
 Intestinal juice has few enzymes and protected mucous is the most important intestinal gland secretion

Foods entering the small intestine
• Mixed with pancreatic juice delivered through a duct on the pancreas as well as bile from the liver

51
Q

Activities of the Small Intestine: Pancreatic Enzymes

A

Play the major role in the digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
 Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that together with brush border enzymes
• Complete the digestion of starch, carry out half of protein digestion, fat digestion and digest nucleic acids

52
Q

Activities of the Small Intestine: Alkaline Content

A
  • Neutralizes acidic chyme and provides the proper environment for the pancreatic enzymes to operate
     When pancreatic juice reaches the small intestine –> it neutralises acidic chyme from the stomach –> provides necessary environment for activation and activity of intestinal and pancreatic digestive enzymes
53
Q

Activities of the Small Intestine: Pancreatic Juice Release

A

From the pancreas into the duodenum is stimulated by:
 Vagus nerves
 Local hormones that travel via the blood to influence the release of pancreatic juice (and bile)
• Secretin

• Cholecystokinin (CCK)
o Also causes gallbladder to contract and release stored bile into bile duct

54
Q

Activities of the Small Intestine: Hormones

A

Secretin and CCK also target the liver and gallbladder to release bile

Bile
• Acts as a fat emulsifier or separator
• Needed for fat

55
Q

Activities of the Small Intestine: Water

A

o Water is absorbed along the length of the small intestine

56
Q

Activities of the Small Intestine: End Products of Digestion

A

Most substances are absorbed by active transport through cell membranes
• Through active transport
• Enter capillary beds in the villi to be transport to liver by hepatic portal vein

Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
• Carried to the liver by both blood and lymphatic fluids

Substances are transported to the liver by the hepatic portal vein or lymph

57
Q

Activities of the Large Intestine: Nutrient Breakdown and Absorption

A

o No digestive enzymes are produced

Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
 Produce some vitamin K and some B vitamins
 Release gases (methane, hydrogen sulphide)
• Contribute to flatulence and the odour of faeces
• 500 mL are produced each day

Water, vitamins, ions, and remaining water are absorbed

Remaining materials are eliminated via feces

58
Q

Activities of the Large Intestine: Propulsion of Food Residue and Defecation

A

o Sluggish peristalsis begins when food residue arrives

o Haustral contractions are the movements occurring most frequently in the large intestine
 Occur approximately every 30 minutes

o Mass movements are slow, powerful movements that occur three to four times per day
 Typically occurs before or after eating when food begins to fill stomach or small intestine

o Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation reflex
 Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
 Defecation occurs with relaxation of the voluntary (external) anal sphincter

59
Q

Gastroesophageal reflux

A

o Movement of chyme from stomach into lower oesophagus
o Stomach wall is protected from harmful effects of acid by a thick layer of mucus
 Oesophagus is not protected –> can cause painful burning sensation in the oesophagus near the heart (heartburn)

60
Q

Ulcers (Peptic Ulcers)

A

Break in the protective lining of the stomach, duodenum or lower oesophagus
 Causes the deeper structures of the body to be exposed to acidic chyme and protein digesting enzymes

61
Q

Gastroenteritis

A

o Inflammation of the stomach or intestine
o Produces a combination of nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal pain
o Often contagious and is sometimes called stomach flu

62
Q

Inflammatory Bowel Disease

A

Walls of either the small or large intestine become chronically inflamed
 Often results in diarrhoea and pain
 Cause is unclear

o Ulcerative colitis
 Typically, only affects colon and mucosal layer of the intestinal wall

o Chrohn’s disease
 Can affect all four layers of the digestive tract wall
 Inflammation typically affects the small intestine or colon

63
Q

Diarrhoea

A

 Waste spends too much time in the colon
 So much water is absorbed by the waste –> becomes nearly solid –> more difficult to pass
 Characterised by abnormally frequent bowel movement
 Occurs when water doesn’t spend enough time in the colon –> excess is absorbed
 Occurs when excess water is in waste –> despite normal travel time through the intestine

64
Q

Constipation

A

 Could be caused by weakness of the bowel muscle, lack of fibre, lack of exercise and some prescription drugs

65
Q

Hepatitis

A

Characterised by inflammation and damage to the liver
 Most common feature among hepatitis
 Can cause a variety of symptoms

66
Q

Pancreatitis

A

o Inflammation of the pancreas
o Occurs when pancreatic enzymes (proteases) become active while still in the pancreas –> pancreas begins to break down its own tissue –> leads to severe abdominal pain

67
Q

Gallstones

A

o Solid crystals that form from substances in bile

Usually created in the gall bladder and then get stuck in the cystic duct or common bile duct
 Blockage prevents further secretion of bile
 Resulting in pain and inability to digest fat

Anatomy and Physiology (14 decks)

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