Difficult topics Flashcards
Negative correlation
A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other decreases.
Positive correlation
A relationship between two variables in which both variables increase or decrease together.
Spurious correlation
A correlation between two variables that is not due to any direct relationship but rather to a third variable.
Experimental research
A method of research that involves manipulating one variable to determine if it causes a change in another variable.
Type 1 error
Incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. (false positive)
Type 2 error
Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false (false negative)
Belmont report
A report outlining ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human subjects.
Construct validity
The extent to which a test measures the theoretical construct (concept) it is intended to measure.
Conceptualization
The process of defining and clarifying concepts in research.
Operationalization
The process of turning abstract concepts into measurable observations.
Systematic bias
A consistent, repeatable error that skews results in a particular direction.
Audit study
A research method that involves sending out matched pairs to test for discrimination or bias.
Hawthorne effect
The alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed.
Attrition bias
A bias that occurs when participants drop out of a study, potentially skewing results.
Stratified sampling
A sampling method that involves dividing a population into subgroups and sampling from each subgroup.
Empirical
Knowledge gained through observation and experimentation
Acquiescence bias
The tendency for respondents to agree with statements as presented, regardless of their actual opinion.
Content analysis
A research technique for systematically analyzing the content of communication.
Ecological validity
The extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-world settings.
Quota sampling
A non-probability sampling technique where researchers ensure equal representation of various subgroups.
Endogeneity
The effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable cannot be casually interpreted because it includes omitted causes leading to biased (i.e., inconsistent) estimates
ex. studying the relationship between educational attainment and income, where a person’s level of education might influence their income, but their income level could also affect their ability to pursue further education, creating a circular causation where both variables are simultaneously influencing each other, making it difficult to isolate the true causal effect of one on the othe
Mediator
A mediator explains the relationship between two variables (mediating situation)
The ecological fallacy
An error in reasoning that occurs when conclusions about individuals are drawn from data of a group.
Internal validity
The extent to which a study accurately establishes cause-and-effect relationships
