Developmental Psych Flashcards
0
Q
What is the difference between retroactive and proactive interference? Which one is reduced if u study for a rest and go to sleep to keep the info fresh in her mind.
A
Retroactive inhibition or interference is the one she is trying to reduce. It occurs when newly learned info interferes with recall of previously learned info. If ya sleep then u minimize the exposure to new info.
Proactive–previously learned info interferes with recall of newly learned material.
1
Q
Best predictor of adolescent alcohol use is:
- Peer and parent attitude toward it.
- Parent and peer alcohol use
- Parent attitude and peer use
- Parent use and peer attitude
A
2
Best predictor is use.
2
Q
Difference between a sensitive and critical period.
The period of attachment during the first year of life most resembles which?
A
Sensitive period…optimal times for capacities to develop, yet if they dont future events may be able to compensate at en earlier or later time.
Emotional and social development have sensitive pds, but not critical.
Critical pd–certain things must occur for development to proceed normally and they won’t be able to compensate. Limited time biologically prepared to acquire certain behaviors but needs certain environmental stimuli to occur. Ie. imprinting.
3
Q
9 year old asked why should not steal. Kohl berg would say:
- Stealing is against the law
- One can be punished for stealing
- Stealing is wrong
- Thieves are bad
A
- Preconventional morality
Punishment/obedience orientation with a focus on avoiding punishment.
- Conventional. Law and order.
- Post conventional - universal principles of justice, equality, respect for life
- Conventional…Good boy/girl..gain approval through obedience.
4
Q
What is Sexual dimorphism? Do humans exhibit it to a greater degree, lesser degree than other species?
A
Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference between individuals of different sex of same species. Humans it is intx of environment and bio factors. Debate how much. The organizational/activational hypothesis proposes hormones guide behavioral sex differences in early life exposed to hormones and at puberty. Humans exhibit less than other species in general.
5
Q
What are the three steps of pattersons coercion model of aggression that lead to delinquency?
A
- Learn to be aggressive by observation of coercive and antisocial parent behavior. Poor parenting unwittingly reinforces coercive child behavior. Cycle. Leads to conduct problems.
- Kid has academic failure and peer rejection.
- Depressed and more likely to join deviant peer grp.
6
Q
Intelligence Cross the lifespan supports as we age:
- Both crystallized and fluid IQ increase
- Both decrease
- Crystallized decreases and fluid increase
- Crystallize increases and fluid decreases.
A
- Crystallized increases. That is, knowledge gained through experience
Fluid decreases with age…organization of info and novel problem solving peaks on teens/ early adult and declines thereafter.
7
Q
What is the difference between accommodation and assimilation?
A
Assimilation is the process of taking in a new experience adding it to and already established mental structure.
Accommodation is adjusting the reality demands by recognizing or adjusting the existing scheme or structure.
Complimentary processes.
Equilibration is the movement betwn equilibrium (use of existing schemes to interpret/assimilation) and disequilibrium (notice info doesn’t fit) which causes us to accommodate to get new info. Result…back to equilibrium.
Takes places continually even at hi levels of maturity.
8
Q
What is the difference between object constancy and object permanence?
A
Object constancy is Mahler’s term refers to ability to maintain image of mom when gone (permanence) but also ability to unify good and bad aspects of mom into whole rep.
Object permanence is when the child understands ppl exist even if ya can’t see them. Play hide and seek or look for someone not seen. Happens in some as young as 6 mo.
9
Q
What are Piaget’s stages
A
Sensorimotor…learn ant objects thru sensory info and motor behavior. Birth to 2
Preoperational…irreversibility..
Inability to mentally undo something. So if pour water from container of one shape into another shape.
Centration is part of this phase and is the tendency to focus on only one aspect when looking at a stimulus.
Phenomenatlistic causality is part of this phase and involved magical thinking where events co occur in time are thought to be causally connected.
2 to 7
Conservation is from the concrete operational phase and it is ability to recognize objects keep characteristics regardless of shape or form.
7 to 12
Formal operations. 12 on
Hypothetical deductive reasoning
Imaginary audience/personal fable
10
Q
What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
A
Genotype are characteristics determined by info coded on genes.
Genetics set boundaries for possible phenotype a that can occur. However environment determines which outcome is mAterialized. Believed that reaction range is bigger for those with high genetically endowed (ie smarter).
No one to one correspondence between gene and personality trait. It sets a range/limits and environment determines the extent of the outcome.
Phenotype are a persons observable and measurable characteristics, physical and psychological (intelligence, personality). Develop from intx of genetics and environment.
Tend to evoke responses consistent w genotypes. Active, social child elicit positive social stimulation from
Others which reinforces sociability. Hard to determine what is genetic and what is environmental.
11
Q
Describe the impact of the environment on maturation and canalization.☺
A
Maturation refers to genetically determined patterns of development. Environment has little or no impact. Ie learn to walk..environment may impact when but not order (no matter the environment).
Canalization…resistant to environmental forces. Ie sensorimotor development
Hi canalized..predetermined growth path followed….only very early or very strong environmental forces can impact it. What matters is behavior itself and amount of time since birth.
Personality and intelligence are less canalized and more open to environmental forces. However, farther from birth less subject to canalization or modification.
These are different then secular trends which demonstrate the impact of environment on development. Ie onset of period due to better nutrition etc..
12
Q
What is the heritability index?
A
Stat used to estimate the degree a characteristic can be attributed to genetic factors. Estimates from kinship studies. Intelligence heritability ranges from .3 to .7 with average around .5. So 50 percent of individual differences in iq scores explained by genetics.
Sociability, emotionality and activity level or personality is also 50 percent.
13
Q
How many chromosomes do we have?
A
23 chromosomes. All have 22 (autosomes) One member of each pair from dad and one from mom. Ea has 1000 of genes. Multiple genes usually determine a characteristic, polygenic. 23rd pair is sex chromosomes. Females they are homologous xx. Males not xy. Males greater chance of inheriting sec linked characteristics because not homologous. Can’t cancel out.
14
Q
What disorders are due to dominant and recessive genes?
Color blindness is a sex linked recessive characteristic
A
Dominant…Huntington’s chorea
Recessive. PKU, cystic fibrosis, tay Sachs
15
Q
What are the chromosome disorders?
A
Down’s syndrome..extra 21 chromosome.
1/800 births rises w maternal age (1/30 when over 40 vs 1/1900 when in 20s). Often congenital problems.
Klienfelters syndrome..males, incomplete sex characteristics, sterile
Turners syndrome..females..no secondary sex characteristics, sterile, short, stubby fingers webbed neck
Fragile x..male and female…mod to mild mr, facial deformities, fast/stucco speech
Xyy syndrome
16
Q
What is the leading cause of mental retardation in the us?
A
Fetal alcohol syndrome. Most with it have iq between 65 and 7o. Mr
Growth retardation, hyperactivity microenchrphaly , variety physical illnesses? Wide space eyes, short eyelid openings, irritability.
1/100 live births have fetal alcohol syndrome or effects
17
Q
What does heroine or methadone use during pregnancy do to the baby?
A
Addicted
18
Q
What effects do prescription drugs have on babies?
A
Benzodiazepine…prenatal syndrome (feeding problem, hypothermia, muscle tone problems).
Mood stabilizers (lithium, valproic acid).
Li in first tri…Ebstein anomaly..heart defect; valproic …fetal malformation
Li around birth…perinatal syndrome (blue color and poor muscle tone)
19
Q
What effect does smoking have on babies?
A
Spontaneous abortion,
20
Q
Virus can cause defects in babies. What are some of the viruses and what can be done about HiV?
A
Rubella (heart, eye, deaf, gi, mr). 20 percent die after birth
Herpes..3x miscarriage. C section
Cytomegalovirus death if early. Give meds.
Syphilis..defects face, deaf,mr
21
Q
Discuss problems with prematurity. Small gestational age, and fetal distress.
A
Premature infants born before week 37. Linked to prenatal care, malnutrition, maternal age, drugs, low ses, multiple gestations. No significant abnormalities catch up by 2 or 3.
Small for gestational age..below 10 th percentile in wt. Higher risk than premie for respiratory disease, hypoglycemia and asphyxia at birth
Fetal distress..at birth..may result in cognitive or motor delays, mr, or cerebral palsy.
22
Q
What are the reflexes in a baby?
Most gone by first 6 months. Due to voluntary control
A
Palmer grasp..grasp finger
23
Q
What are the early sensory skills at birth?
A
Limited vision at birth. Win a few days or mins prefer faces, discriminate mom from stranger by 1 mo, color by 2 or 3 mo, 6 mo depth like adult
Hearing..just little less sensitive than adult. Win days prefer human voice, know moms voice , tell a from I. Soon after birth…sound or auditory localization (turn to sound) which leaves 2 to 4 mo and returns by 12 mo
Taste.. 4 at birth. Prefer sweet
Smell..respond to bad odor first days. Discriminate odors 2 to 7 days
24
What are Rutterd six family risk factors?
Greater number of risk factors, the greater the negative outcome. 4 or more 21 percent risk; 1 or less had 2 percent chance.
Predict child pathology...
Low ses, overcrowding/lg family, severe marital discord, parent criminality, mom pathology, child placed outside the home.
Even hi risk can have positive outcome..if few stressors after birth, easy temperament, stable support.
25
Name and describe Bronfrenbrenner's ecological model or the four interacting environmental systems.
Microsystems--immediate setting;
--family, daycare, schl
Mesosystem--interconnections between different components of Microsystems. Or crisis upsets kid and impacts daycare.
Exosystem--part if environment kid not in direct contact with but affected by. Ie parent job, community.
Macrosystem--cultural and us cultural context other systems are embedded. Includes aspects that affect kid...racism, socioeconomic conditions, cultural stds re child rearing.
26
What are the effects of malnutrition in the early stages?
First tri
Spontaneous abortion and congenital malformation
Third tri
Effects in CNS...low brain wt, low branching of dendrites, low number if brain cells
Apathy, irritability, hi pithed cry, lag motor development, unresponsive to environmental stimulus action, intellectual deficits
Prevention or reversal only if resume feeding early in infancy.
27
```
The least developed part of the brain at birth is:
Limbic system
Extra pyramidal motor system
Medulla
Cortex
```
Cortex...continues to develop through early adolescence
28
```
Infants ability to acquire new skills and knowledge in the first yr of life's due to an increase in:
Number of neurons
Hemispheric communication
Mylenization and dendrite growth
Sensory perception
```
Mylenization and dendrite growth are very rapid the first year
29
During the prenatal phase. When is the most damage done from toxins?
Embryonic phase 2 to 8 weeks when prolonged exposure causes growth retardation and lowered iq.
Germinal stage is first and fetal stage is last 9 weeks to birth
30
Piaget's stages of development.
☺Piaget's stages are invariant..emerge in a fixed order and there is no skipping.
Learn thru objects and by things baby can do to them...feel touch tAste...
Sensorimotor birth to 2 yrs
Learn via sensory motor and motor
6 substages based on action. Learning due to circular rx..behaviors performed to reproduce events that first started by chance.
Key phase of sensorimotor...object permanence. Objects exist even when not visible.
Deferred imitation..imitate observed act later and beginning of make believe play. Both beginning of symbolic thought.
Play and imitation. Intentional and goal directed behaviors.
31
What are the important development during preoperational thought?
2 to 7 years old
Increase symbolic thought (therefore language and pretend play), sociodramatic play
Emergence of intuitive thought
Deferred imitation
Limited by egocentrism...underlies magical thinking and animism
Can not conserve!
Centration (focus one detail)
Irreversibility
32
What is horizontal decalage and when does it occur?
It occurs in Piaget's concrete operational phase between the ages of 7 and 12.
Sequential mastery of concepts within a single stage of development. Or conservation of number then length then liquid, mass, area, wt..☺
33
What are the milestones of concrete operational thinking? Between ages 7 and 12.
```
Decentration
Reversibility
Conservation
Horizontal decalage
Transitivity (mentally sort objects)
Hierarchical classification
```
34
What are the milestones of Piaget's formal operational stage?
Age 12 up
35
Research on Piaget's stages found?
May underestimate cognitive abilities of kids ESP in preoperational stage.
Not everyone reaches formal op. maybe half and many only in profession/expertise
invariant sequence of stages confirmed.
Importance of adaptation as a concept for Piaget.
36
Describe childhood memory
Babies memories updated continually. 1 to 3 can recall events. Adults report earliest not before 3.
Fail to remember early is infantile amnesia...lack schematic organization, encoding, language. Memories result of talking abt them w someone else.
Memory significantly increases around 7 yrs old....because .more short term capacity, consistent rehearsal ,increase knowledge, meta memory develops.
37
What type of cries do infants have at birth?
Hunger (basic cry), anger, and pain. By 3 weeks also have attention cry.
Causes physiological responses in parents, especially first timers. Type of cry matters..pain gets more arousal. Better at knowing own kids crys than others. Usually respond by lifting to shoulder.
38
What is the sequence of language development?
Coo 1/2 mo
Babble 4/6 mo
By 9 mo babbling is only in own language.
First words 10/16 mo..ppl or obj or salient properties.
Holistic phrase 12/18 mo single word w gesture to express entire thought
Telegraphic speech 18/24 mo 2 word sentences
Rapid vocab growth. 30/36 mo. By 3 have 1000 word
Complex grammatical forms 3 to 6 yrs.
39
Describe the theories of language development.
Behavioral theories..cc, oc, imitation
Recently..strategies caregivers use like motherese (simple, hi pitch, slow) and recasting rephrase kids sentence in diff way (make ?)
Nativist ...chompsky..
Innate, genetically determined
LAD..language acquisition device..with sufficient vocab can combo words in novel utterances and understand meaning. Research support certain language aspects universal, brain lateralization, language acquired in sensitive pd
Cross cultural and animal research show that language is uniquely human and biologically prepared. Diff cultures progress thru similar stages. Types of cries etc. cooing, babbling etc...12 mo nonverbal signals. 11 to 16 mo first words, play sounds. Holographic speech, telegraphic speech, rapid vocab growth (fastest 30 36 mo). By 3 know 1000 words. Complex grammatical forms 3 to 5. Use to be, negation and use questions.
Cognitive...part of cognitive development and motivated by kids desire to express meaning.
40
How does bilingualism effect people?
3 million American children
Perform better on cognitive flexibility, concept formation, verbal and nonverbal intellectual tasks, analytic reasoning, divergent thinking and meta linguistic awareness. Academically affected by factors like age second Lang acquisition, support, services. If not proficient in native and put in English only...risk semilingualism or inadequate in both.
41
What is code switching in language?
```
Changing to another language in a conversation.
Because...
1. Can't express well in one may change
2. Go to minority Lang..show solidarity
3. Show attitude to listener
```
42
What are gender communication differences?
Men talk more than women overall or more in certain circumstances. More on neutral or male topics. Women talk more on feminine topics..
Women ask more rhetorical ?, hesitate, hedge, add tag ?
No big diff in who interrupts more. Women may do more to rapport build or to get cooperation.
43
What are the theories of attachment?
Freud linked it to feeding/oral needs.
Harlow found contact comfort or pleasant tactile sensation is more important than feeding.
Bowlbys ethnological theory...infants/moms biologically programmed for attachment. Baby sucks, crys, coo and mom responds to meet attachment needs. Also thinks start to build mental representations of self and attachment figures during first yr called internal working models guide behavior in later relationships.
44
When do infants show preference for their mothers?
4 months show preference
6 or 7 mo clear signs
45
What are clear signs of attachment?
Social referencing..6 mo..read emotional rx of mom and use info to respond. Social cliff..won't cross if mom frowns, mean less phrase in fearful tone
Separation anxiety..6 mo..distress when separate. Strongest 14 to 18 mo
Stranger anxiety..6 mo but common 8 to 10 mo. Peak 18 mo. Affected by situational factors (mom near do better)
```
Response to prolonged separation
15 to 30 mo separated from moms did sequence of behaviors...
Protest ( loud cry, restless, reject)
Despair (cry, inactivity, withdrawal)
Detachment (apathy even mom back)
```
46
Ainsworth proposed different types of attachment related to how parents respond to their child's needs. She used the strange situation (infant alone, with mom, with stranger).
Describe a secure attachment.
Explore alone or with mom
Friendly to strange when w mom but prefer mom
Distress mom leaves and seek her when she returns
Babies emotionally sensitive and responsive.
47
What is the difference between anxious/ avoidant and anxious/resistant infant?
```
Anxious/ avoidant
Uninterested in environment
Little distress mom goes
Avoid contact mom returns
May/not be wary of strangers
Mom..impatient, nonresponsive, over responsive
```
Anxious/resistant
Anxious even mom there
Distressed mom leaves
Ambivalent mom returns, may resist contact
Wary strangers even w mom
Moms..inconsistent..indifferent to enthusiast
48
Describe the disorganized/disoriented attachment...
Conflicting responses to mom...avoidant/resistant to closer proximity
Confused, dazed, apprehensive
Often maltreated
49
Describe adult attachment patterns and how they relate to their children. Using the adult attachment interview to determine intergenerational transmission of attachment.
Types are
Secure autonomous..secure attachment and value relationships.integrate positive and negative about parents. Kids have secure pattern.
Dismissing
Preoccupied
Unresolved...trauma, early loss. Not integrated. Dysfx relationships w own. Abusive, neglectful. Kids disorganized/disoriented type.
50
What is the difference between dismissing and preoccupied type of adult attachment patterns?
Dismissing...kids anxious/avoiding
Adults don't value attachment
Guarded, defensive re:
Childhood. Idealize parents but can't support w ex
Preoccupied...kids anxious/resistant
Kids ambivalent
Confused and incoherent re:
Attachment memories. Childhood was disappointment, try please, role reversal. Still enmeshed and may have anger and resignation.
51
Describe the different ways males and females relate to their peers.
Females have an enabling style..increases intimacy and equality and noted by agreement, suggestions, support.
Girls place importance on intimate, emotional relationships
Males have restrictive style...interferes with continuing intx
Brag, contradict, interrupt
More into sharing activities and interests.
52
What determines popularity?
Social behavior more important than attractiveness, size, maturity.
Skilled at initiating and maintaining positive relationships...more outgoing, supportive, communicative, cooperative
Tend to be more intelligent and successful academically
Rejected kids...more aggressive and disruptive
53
What is the difference between kids who are rejected and who are neglected by their peers?
Rejected kids..more physiological and behavioral problems. Less likely to improve in peer status when change peer group.
Neglected kids...social isolation
54
When do kids most conform to their peers?
12 to 14.
In general,
Kids who view selves as more competent and worthwhile are less susceptible to peers.
Teens R influenced to do antisocial but also pro social behavior as well. Parents greater influence on life decisions and values. Peers influence attitude and behavior re status in peer grp, music, dress
55
What are Piaget's stages of mortality?
Heteronomous morality.. 4 to 7 (cd says 5 to 10)
Morality of realism . Under authority of others. Unchangeable rules. Violation leads to punishment.
Rules absolute, unchangeable,
Imminent justice..break rule equals punishment. Judge acts based on acts consequences. More negative the worse it is. This inflexible reasoning is due to preop egocentrism and parental authority.
```
Autonomous morality 7 or 8yrs
cd says starts 10.
Morality of reciprocity. Rules determined by agreement, alterable consequences.
Intent most important.
Welfare of others
```
Shift due to intx w peers, release from adults constraint and decrease of preop thought.
Piaget didn't think kids deliberately lied until 7; studies show by 3 or 4 lie to avoid punishment, embarrassment.
56
Describe the characteristics and levels of kohlbergs preconventional level of moral reasoning.
Age 4 to 10
Based on consequences.
Behaviors punished considered bad. Rewarded is good.
Level 1..avoid punishment (punishment and obedience)
Level 2..what satisfies own needs as moral (instrumental hedonistic)
57
Describe the conventional stage of morality.
10 to 13
Stage two of kohlbergs morality theory is based on the desire to maintain existing social laws, norms, rules etc..
Level 3..maintain social approval...
Good boy/good girl
Level 4..obey society's laws, rules
Avoid scolding of legitimate authority
58
Describe kohlbergs post conventional stage of moral development.
Adolescents on
Most don't get here
Must use formal operational thought
In general it is based on self chosen or directed behavior.
Stage 5..uphold society's laws but see can be changed for a valid reason. Respect of peers and community. Follow democratically determined laws.
Stage 6..universal ethical stds that may override legal ones. Own conscience.
59
Kochandka discussed morality/conscience, discipline, and temperament.
```
Kochandka found development of conscience is related to:
Gender
Intelligence
Cognitive development
Parenting style and kids temperament
```
Gentle discipline most positive impact on conscience development in kids who have fearful temperament. De emphasize power and use kids natural discomfort (vs threats or commands). Optimal level of arousal facilitates semantic processing of message that internalize.
Fearless kids better with secure attachment and maternal responsiveness. Insufficient arousal so get their cooperation based on relationship (vs consequences of behavior).
A, B. no!
C. Piaget
D. Correct! Conscience in later childhood positively correlated w hi inhibitory control and low impulsivity in early childhood. Also, linked to mutual positive affect between mom and kid; low power assertion by mom; maternal empathy.
60
Kohlbergs moral development occurs: extension of Piaget's work
A. Invariant manner as an outgrowth of cognitive development.
B. each stage reps a cognitive whole..use reasoning to wide variety of situations.
C. Stages relate more to reasoning than behavior even though higher the stage more likely see it in behavior.
D. Other factors affect growth such as social perspective taking, child rearing, peer intx, formal education.
E. outgrowth of cognitive development. Grows out of disequilibrium. Current doesn't meet reality
All!
61
At what age is gender identity formed?
3 yrs
Kohlberg talks about gender identity by 2 or 3 (male/female). Gender stability (girls bc one women..). Gender constancy 6 or 7..gender doesn't change due to looks, behaviors, situations.
62
Discuss temperament over the life span.
Temperament strong genetic component. Temperament is stable over the lifespan when done after age 2.
63
What are the three temperament groups?
Easy children...adaptable, regular, moderate intensity rx to new stimuli.
Slow to warm up..sad or tense, low intensity tx, variable schedules, time to adapt
Difficult..irritable, hard to soothe, very active, irregular schedules.
Thomas and chess formulated a transactional model called the goodness of fit between kids temperament and environmental factors, ESP parent behaviors. Maladjustment due to poor fit.
64
Give freuds stages and the age they occur.
```
Too much or little gratification can cause fixation. Over gratification makes it so they don't want to move on. Undergratification leads them to seek gratification for the frustrated drive.
Oral birth to 1
Anal 1 to 3
Phallic 3 to 6
Latency 6 to puberty
Genital post puberty
```
65
What is the resolution at the phallic stage of development?
Phallic stage is 3 to 6. Oedipal and Electra complex. At end identify with same sex parent and supe ego is formed.
66
What are the critiques of freuds theory?
Too much emphasis on sexual urges.
Leaves out social and intellectual factors
Leaves out later years
67
What are Erickson's stages of development?
```
Trust vs mistrust. B thru 1 yr
Autonomy v shame/doubt. 1 to 3 yr
Initiative v guilt 3 to 6 yr
Industry v inferiority 6 to puberty
Identity v id confusion Adolescence
Intimacy v isolation young adult
Generativity v stagnation mid adult
Ego integrity v despair. Old age
```
68
The dimensions of parenting are warmth, hostility, restrictive, and permissive. Discuss
Come from warm then more securely attached, higher self esteem, and higher iq, more empathetic, and altruistic.
Restrictive kids are timid and obedient. Difficulty establishing close relationships. Permissive few rules.. Kids tend to be thoughtless and moderately independent.
69
The goodness of fit model proposes healthy development requires a match between
A. Temperament and environment
B. thoughts, feelings, actions
C. Attachment and parents responsivity
D. Cognitive abilities and environmental demands
A. This is Thomas and chess theory
70
What is the result of authoritarian parenting?
Parents respond to disobedience with punitive measures. These kids tend to be insecure, timid, unhappy. May grow up dependent and lacking motivation.
71
What happens to kids of permissive and uninvolved parents?
Uninvolved parents are indifferent, undemanding or rejecting
Permissive parents have kids who have difficulty controlling their impulses, ignore rules, not involved in academic and work activities.
Kids of uninvolved parents are often noncompliant, demanding, lack self control, prone to anti social behavior. May become delinquent.
72
What are some moderating effects of authoritative parenting?
Authoritative parenting has the best results re: academics, confidence etc. kids usually independent, achievement oriented, friendly, self confident. College kids..better grades, confidence, persistence, task involvement, rapport w teachers
Ethnicity and peer relations may have impact. Minority black and Hispanic kids may be influenced by peers more (parents are all authoritative). They are not supported for academics by peers and do poorly. Asians have positive peer influence for school and achieve accordingly.
73
What percent experience storm and stress during the teen years.
What is the age of onset for puberty?
20 percent
Girls 10.5
Boys 12.5
Early maturing boys benefit most , then ave maturing boys and girls, late maturing boys.
Worse outcomes for late maturing boys and early maturing girls. They have emotional instability, decline academics, drug use. Worse based on perception of maturity measured vs actual.
74
What was the point of Marcia's identity statuses?
Extended Ericksons identity development to include occupational choices and religious and political beliefs. Each has crisis and commitment.
Only 60 percent have a stable identity by 24.
75
What are Marcia's 4 identity statuses?
Identity diffusion...no crisis, no identity commitment...not much thought.
Identity foreclosure..strong identity suggested by another, no crisis
Dr just like dad
Identity moratorium.., crisis, exploring options. Say confused. This is uncommon and if does during early college.
Identity achievement...resolved crisis, identity. Gonna be...
Only about 60 percent have a stable identity by age 24.
76
What is Gillian's loss of voice?
Identity development concept as a result of internalized sexist messages. Teens girls risk for relational crisis...abandon self and to conform to cultural expectations.
77
When do fears subside?
Age 5 only 5 percent have excessive fears.
Fear animals at 3, dark at 4,5, fear imaginary creatures at 5.
Tx..self control (I'm brave, can handle dark); modeling; contact desensitization (model hierarchy)
78
Discuss aggression in kids.
Similar before 1. Then boys more.
Boys more overt. Girls relational aggression (teasing, excluding).
May be linked to parenting factors, cognitive, tv viewing and biological factors.
79
What are the effects if children watching tv violence?
More violent, aggressive tv watch the more aggressive kid becomes.
Childhood exposure stimulates an increase in adult aggression. Even when control for ses, iq, age, etc..
Consequences greater for those already above ave in aggressiveness.
Increase watching violence increases tolerance for violent behavior in others.
More exposure as a kid, greater id with same sex aggressive characters, and belief as kid that shows reflect real life predict aggressiveness as adult (no matter initial aggressiveness).
Viewing violent tv increases tolerance of violent behavior in others
Effects may be mitigated by:
Adult watching with decreases effects
Decrease if parents disapprove of aggression, encourage no aggressive behavior, and limit viewing of violent shows.
80
What are the cognitive factors in children's that impact aggressiveness?
Aggressive kids more likely to report that it is easier to perform aggressive acts and difficult to inhibit aggressive impulses. They also feel confident that aggression will have positive outcomes. They are more likely to interpret ambiguous acts as intentionally hostile. Biased or deficient processing.
81
What interventions are used with aggressive kids?
Highly aggressive...social skills. Alternate ways to resolve conflicts
Cognitive interventions to interpret correctly
Empathy training...if feelings of others, express non aggressive way
Parents taught to reinforce desirable behaviors, enforce rules consistently, time out vs physical punishment.
82
What are the risk factors for pathology and resiliency factors?
Risk factors...pathology often die to accumulation of factors instead of one.
Severe marital discord, low ses, large family size or overcrowding, parent criminal or psychiatric do, placement of kid outside home.
Resilience factors...temperamentally easy and socially responsive as infant; consistent caregiver
83
What is the relationship of chronic illness and psychological adjustment?
Brain condition pts have more behavior and social problems than other do
Family fx, cohesion and support for kid, correlated with chronically I'll Childs adjustment
Parent adjustment is positively correlated with adjustment in chronically ill kids. Hi levels of maternal depression..poorer adjustment.
Chronically ill boys (6 to 11) greater risk for behavioral problems vs girls. Girls more risk for reporting distress
Teens hi risk not adhere to tx bc don't wanna be different.
84
What do ya tell a kid with. Serious illness?
Age appropriate info..truth.
Those told earlier Better Adjustment. Give opportunities to talk, ask etc
4 to 5...fear of mutilation
School aged...fear of pain and death
85
Describe teen drug use.
Decline since 1999 in 12 plus age grp. 8.3 percent
Most used is tobacco, alcohol, pot
Ages 12 to 17...
10.4 cigarettes, 16.6 at least 1 drink; 10.3 binge drink, 2.4 drink heavily; 6.7 pot last month.
Long term consequences as adult. Use something as teen tend to use in 20s.
86
What are the effects of divorce on parenting?
Diminished capacity to parent lasts about 2 years. Routines disintegrate.parents inconsistent in discipline. Go between detached and highly punitive. Moms less affection, ESP sons and start to treat them more harshly. Dads become indulgent and permissive. Parent without physical custody initially spend more time but this diminishes over time.
87
What are the effects of divorce on children?
Moderated by many factors.
Preschool kids most negative outcomes, ESP in short term. Prone to self blame, immature, separation anxiety.
Long term consequences...worse for kids who are older when parents separate. 10 yrs later have painful memories and fears about ability to have a happy marriage.
Gender..boys more severe lt and st.
Boys more behavioral indicators and effects them longer.
Preteen increase acting out. Girls more internalizing. Girls sleeper effect...if preschl or elementary may few probs but as teens noncompliance, low self esteem, emotional, antisocial. More likely to marry young, prego b4 marriage, unstable hubby.
Kids w same sex parent after divorce better adjusted. ESP true for boys. Inconsistent. Some evidence either w dad...depressed, anxious, poor grades...
Worse adjustment if financial problems w custodial or not a good relationship with both parents.
Diminished capacity to parent... Custodial is less warm more restrictive and punishing less consistent. Non custodial often overindulgent and eventually see kids less.
School grades lower . Like school less, peer, behavior probs At schl, higher risk to drop out. Worse for boys and worse for older kids. May be low income effect..remove income and schl measures weaker.
88
How does the parents relationship following the divorce impact the kids?
Kids see conflict have a worse adjustment.
Kids from highly conflicting intact families more poorly adjusted than from divorced, low conflict families.
Divorce effects mitigated when positive relationships with both, extended family is available, school environment positive, divorce doesn't cause upheaval in daily routine.
Some say kids have big problems Re kids who had big problems before the divorce.
89
What is the buffering effect?
Custodial mom had another adult in the house it reduces the negative consequences of divorce. This doesn't apply to step parents. Overall kids have more probs with step parents than bio parents. With stepdads..usually distant, disengaged, unpleasant. With step moms more frequent but abrasive. Stepdads and sons may improve (not for girls). Step parent families tend to have more authoritarian parenting (decrease grades, more delinquent).
Step dad may help younger boys to reduce anxiety, anger, adjustment probs
90
What are the effects of maternal employment and daycare on kids?
Mom working is associated with greater life satisfaction for low and middle income (if consistent with family preference) moms.
Kids w moms who work have higher esteem, family and peer relations, less sex stereotyped. Positive effects more pronounced for girls..more career driven and assertive .
Some old studies say boys worse on achievement and iq. Found if over 40 hours.
Traditional dual earners (gender inequality) kids lower peer acceptance and achievement vs egalitarian dual earners.
No long term effects of maternal employment.
Hi quality day care no long term effects. May have positives..enriched day caress help low income kids re intelligence. Some positive effects socially.
More self sufficient, cooperative, adaptable yet less compliant and more aggressive (if over 30 hrs at day care).
91
What are the results of daycares like head start?
Low quality daycare equals negative consequences..distractible, low task involvement.
Head start has iq gains but they don't hold. However these kids are less likely to get placed in special Ed, have better school attitude, higher achievement scores, less likely repeat grade or drop out of hs.
92
Father child relationships.
Interact more than in past decades.
Still less time than moms.
Maternal intx around caregiving.
Paternal intx play, rough and tumble
When dad primary caregiver, traditional roles don't change (moms still soothe, discipline etc the young)
93
Describe sibling relationships.
Early childhood...pos and neg. positive more common. Rivalry between same gender and close in age, and one is highly active and emotionally tense.. More common if parents inconsistent or tx one differently and when kids don't pay enough attention in general.
Middle school...close and conflict
Late childhood..more egalitarian. Conflicts peak early teen then decline.
94
Personality development in adulthood is stable for what traits?
Happiness, assertiveness, and hostility are established early and remain stable.
Women do increase self efficacy and assertiveness and see a decline in dependence. Men may see an increase in nurturance and interpersonal orientation.
Midlife often involves shift from extroversion to introvertion.
95
What are Levinsons four seasons of a mans life?
Infancy thru teen
Early adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood
Early adulthood has entering adult world, age 30 transition (define the dream) , settling down
Early to mid adulthood transition is 40 to 45 and involves several conflicts (being young vs old, attached vs separate, deflation of the dream).
Females found to be similar
80 percent midlife crisis via Levinson. Others say time to reevaluate and crisis only for minority. Not associated with more emotional disturbance.
96
What age do people transition from outer world to inner world orientation? From active to passive mastery?
50
Also active to passive mastery
Also shift in time since birth to time until death.
97
What type of intelligence and memory decline as we age?
Fluid intelligence declines. That is nonverbal tasks that include rapid responding and processing of novel stimuli. This is effected by loss if neurons, depletion of nt, ...
WAIS classic aging pattern shows sharp decline on all performance subtexts, moderate decline on similarities and digit span. Little decline on stored knowledge such as information, vocabulary, arithmetic, and comprehension.. These deal with crystallized intelligence. Stuff learned through education, experience and unaffected by brain changes.
98
What is the terminal drop?
Substantial decrease in all facets of intelligence that occurs months before death.
99
What is the synchronicity effect regarding agin?
Beneficial act of matching task demands and time of day.
Being able to attend to info coming in and outgoing responses is vulnerable to this effect.
Older adults and kids do better in the am. Changes about age 12 when peak arousal and task performance is evening. Eventually comes full circle.
100
How is attention impacted by aging?
Sustained and selective attention not impacted. Decrements with divided attention.
101
Describe aging and the impact on the brain.
Brain starts to shrink by 30 due to loss of neurons. By 60 it accelerates. Impacts hippocampus, cortex, locus cereleus. Senile plaques and enlarged ventricles occur. Decrease blood flow Blood flow and decrease level of neurotransmitters. Brain compensates w new connections. New brain cells develop in hippocampus in adult yrs.
102
Describe the impact of aging on memory.
Greatest decline is recent long term memory. Here problem seems to be encoding. Controversial. Old do worse on free recall so they think due to retrieval if given a cue can do it.
Then working memory.
Not impacted is remote LTM.
Memory training can be helpful esp if learn own strategies and positive attitude about ability to improve.
Working memory problems due to processing speed.
Metamemory effected.
Less accurate in estimating memory. Memory in general underestimate efficiency. Overestimate ability about performance on a specific task.
103
What is primary memory and how does age effect it?
Short term memory is made of primary memory and working memory.
Primary memory..ability to retain small amount of info in cs memory for short time.
Working memory..manipulate and transform info in primary memory. Older people have declines in this part. Relates to processing speed (vs storage capacity).
104
How does age effect long term memory?
Long term memory has remote and recent memory. Little if any impact on remote memory.
Recent long term memory or secondary memory is effected and seems due to encoding problems. Training encoding strategies is useful if normal decline (not Alzheimer's etc).
105
Many aspects of long term memory are effected by aging. What are they?
Impact on episodic memory (recall personal experiences) due to deliberate processing and retrieval (old ppl better at recognition vs retrieval)
Decline in verbal and nonverbal or visualspatial memory.
Less well than younger ppl on prospective memory (remember do things in future). Shown on times tasks that requires response at regular intervals (vs event based on future cues).
Deficits in explicit memory (cs recollection of material)
Less accurate about meta memory but depends on situation. Old overestimate ability on memory task but underestimate their memory efficiency.
No deficits in implicit memory (automatic, ucs recollection)
106
What factors contribute to wisdom?
Personality factors and wisdom related experience more than intelligence. Increases over the life span.
107
Discuss aging and sexuality.
Older women don't differ from younger re sex drive. Do experience changes...less orgasm, thin vaginal walls, reduced lubrication.
Men..erection less spontaneous, more time, harder to maintain. Longer refractory period.
Both gradual decline in activity.
Every age women report less activity and interest.
Mid to late 60s more pronounced.
Best predictor...past sexual behaviors.
Women..marital status related to activity. Men health status predictor.
Ie. married and over 65 then 40 percent active vs widow at 4 percent of women
Elderly men 82 percent who are not married. Slightly higher than married men.
108
Describe death and dying factors.
```
Before 2..lack understanding
2 to 7....reversible
7 to 11...irreversible, anxious re it
Adult..fear peaks mid age
Elderly ...talk more, less fear
```
109
What are the 5 stages of death?
DABDA
```
Denial
Anger,
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
```
Terminal ppl not necessarily in fixed sequence. Also feel hope.
110
What parenting behaviors are linked to aggression?
How does Patterson's coercive family interaction model explain childhood aggression?
Rejection, harsh discipline, and lax monitoring.
Patterson says kids learn aggressive behaviors initially from harsh disciplining parents who reward the aggressiveness with attention and approval and infrequently reinforce pro social behaviors. The aggressive parent child interactions escalate over time.
111
How do babies demonstrate attachment and what are the indicators?
Attachment is evident at 6 months when separation anxiety
Begins and peaks 14 to 18 mo.
Stranger anxiety begins 8 to 10
Months and peaks at 18 months.
112
What is probable epigenesis?
Likelihood that specific environmental conditions will activate certain genes that lead to particular behavior or trait outcomes and significant changes in the environment will change which genes are expressed.
113
Kohlbergs level 2 of moral development is?
1. Punishment obedience
2. Conformity to please and gain approval
3. Morality of contract and laws
4. Morality of conscience
2. 1 st level of preconventional is compliance w rules and avoid punishment and get rewards.
Conventional...conform to rules to get social approval
Good boy/girl
Law and order
Post conventional
Contract, rights and laws
Morality of conscience
114
```
What age separation most problematic?
0 to 4
5 to 10
10 to 16
16 to 24
```
10 to 16 mo
```
3.
Mahler
1 mo autistic
2-4mo symbiotic
4/5 individuation..
.......differentiation...stranger anxiety
.....practicing...separation anxiety
.....rapprochement
....consolidation and obj constancy
```
115
```
Child refers to friends dog w same name as family dog. This is:
Under extension
Overextension
Holophrasic speech
Telegraphic speech
```
2. Early speech 18 mo has underextension use word narrowly
Overextension use word too broadly
Holophrasic is 12 to 18 mo use single word to express complex idea, up
Telegraphic 18 to 24 mo 2 word noun verb sentence, give candy
116
```
Adult does interview and recalls many attachment experiences but difficulty describing coherent and linear way. Their infant will probably be:
Secure
Ambivalent
Avoidant
Disorganized
```
2. Look at how describe memories not content. This Dult is preoccupied and loses train of thought.
Adults in interview are:
Secure/autonomous. Hi coherence and consistency. Secure infants
Insecure/dismissing...contradict, lapses. Avoidant infants
Insecure/preoccupied ..confused, incoherent. Ambivalent/ anxious infants.
Unresolved/disorganized trauma/loss. Disorganized infants.
117
```
Frequency of sex in later life is most highly correlated with:
A. Availability of partners
B. previous sex history
C. Age
D. Physical health
```
A. 70 percent of men and 20 percent of women over 60 are active.
Drive may even increase.
Significant relationship how active in early adulthood and older age
118
```
Boy has fear of dad wout cause. Which stage?
Anal
Genital
Phallic
Latency
```
Phallic 3 to 6 years...attracted to opposite sex parent and fear punishment from same sex parent.
119
Correlation between iq scores and academic performance:
Greater in elementary/hi schl, smaller in college
Smaller elementary, greater college
Stable across levels
Close to zero
1. Restricted range . Lower correlations when the range is smaller.
120
Difference
| Between equilibration, centration, seriation, and primary circular rx.
Centration...preop kid. Focus one aspect
Equalibration..need to balance between the person and outside environment and among schemas. determines extent use assimilation or accommodation.
Seriation put things in order during concrete op
Primary circular rx. Early in sensory motor (1 to 4 mo)...own actions stimulate child to perform the action more.
121
```
Kubler Ross described a sequence if stages ppl go thru when have a life threatening illness. First stage;
Anger
Disbelief
Bargaining
Superficial acceptance
```
```
5 stages
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
```
Dabda
122
Relationship between mental illness and ses
1. Positively correlated
2. Negatively correlated
3. Low ses causes poor mental health
4. Supposed correlation was due to poor research
2. Higher ses associated with less mental illness
| Low ses associated with higher mental illness
123
```
Kohlbergs stages of gender identity, identifies a boy with long hair as a girl is:
Gender labeling
Gender stability
Gender consistency
Gender confusion
```
Gender labeling...identify sec based in appearance. Not stable over time.
Gender stability...stable girls become women
Gender consistency...understand permanent across time and situation.
124
What are the periods of prenatal development and how are the impacted by tetrogens?
Germinal conception to implantation
Up to 10 days
No impact to death
Embryonic. End of second week after conception to end of eighth week
Most susceptible to structural probs
Fetal pd 9 th week to birth
Organs less effected
Still impact ESP genitalia and brain
Prolonged exposure causes growth retardation and lower iq.
125
Consequences of malnutrition are unresponsiveness, irritable, hi cry, iq deficits, lags in motor development. Malnutrition early in prego is associated w:
Spontaneous abortion and congenital malformations
Low birth wt
Low brain wt
Less branching and mylenization
A.
If 3rd trimester causes low birth wt and low brain wt due to fewer neurons, less dendrite branching and mylenization.
126
Which sx in baby exposed to cocaine?
A. Insensitive to touch
B. irritable and low frustration tolerance
C. Facial abnormal
D. Rapid habituation to external stimuli
B. over reactive to environmental stimuli
Hemmorrhages, lesions and brain swelling
Intestinal and gi problems
127
```
The percentage of low birth weight babies are born to:
15 and younger
No age difference
45 and older
35 and older
```
1 and 3
Over 35 slightly higher risk of prego complications
128
How is brain development in infancy?
Continues until adolescence. Growth of dendrites which creates new synapses and myelinization. Mylenization occurs first at primary motor cortex, then primary sensory area. Most done by end of yr 2.
By 1 60 percent of adult weight.
129
What are the parenting factors related to aggression?
```
Parents rejecting, lack warmth
Either permissive or indifferent re kids aggression
Power assertive discipline to control
Insecure/resistant attachment
Lax monitoring
```
Kids learn by imitation and rewards for acting that way, such as attention or approval
130
```
1970s research said 2 parent house with mom working, negative cognitive effects on:
Children from low income family
Middle income family
Boys in low income family
Boys in middle income family
```
4. Refuted by more resent research
131
```
Which aspect of memory shows the most decline with age?
Sensory
Primary
Secondary
Implicit
```
Recent long term memory or secondary memory shows the most.
Then working memory
Short term memory has primary and working memory. Primary holds info and working allows to manipulate. Working declines w age
Also declines in episodic, explicit, verbal and nonverbal, prospective, and metamemory...
132
What are x linked disorders?
Males more chance of getting
Red green color blindness 2 x males
Hemophilia...almost all men
133
Emotional stress of mom when pregnant.☺
Spontaneous abortion, more medical complications, low birth weight, respiratory problems.
Birth to baby's with more complications, prematurity
Babies born early, cleft palate, piloric Stenosis (tightening of stomach outlet).
Problems reduced w supportive relationships
134
Bowlbys theory of attachment
Ethnological theory
Infant has built in attachment behaviors..suck smile follow
Increase chance will survive, like read emotional rx of moms. Even at 6 mo old know if follow visual cliff. Called Social referencing.
Biologically prepared for attachment but environment important for attachment to occur. Increase chance infant will survive.
135
Social smiling occurs when? Implications?
4 weeks baby will follow moms face w eyes. 2 mo smile when face or mask presented.
Until 8 mo social smiling
Then determine familiar to unfamiliar faces. Start to get recognition memory. Variety cultures show this at 8 mo. Stranger anxiety. Peak 18 mo. Decline 24 environment
Separation anxiety peaks with object permanence. Appreciation of mom as permanent object.
136
What is anaclitic depression?
Another type of problematic attachment.
Between 6 and 8 mo. Institutionalized babies
General decline in health and affect. Weep, withdrawal,
Protest, despair, detachment
137
Fixation at freuds stages cause what type of behavior?
Oral. Oral fixations, dependence gullibility sarcasm , passivity
Anal expulsiveness ...cruel messy or destructive
Retentive messy..selfish,'stingy, obsessive compulsive
Genital Homosexuality, sexual exploration of others
Latency no fixations
Phallic. Sexual confusion
138
Difference of Freud and Ericksons theories.
Ericksons 8 stages of man
Conflict of social crisis
Ericksons
Social factors
Ego and cs processes
Development thru life span
Freud
Sexual factors
Ucs and id
was deterministic...adult set by childhood experiences
139
Schafers parenting dimensions are what?
Different dimensions: intx of affection ....hostility to love
Permissiveness. Autonomy to control
Controlling hostile.
Withdrawn, sullen, self punishing
Hostile autonomy
Rebellious and aggressive
Love control style...
Insecure, dependent , lack creativity
Autonomous love...tolerant, hi self esteem, independent, social
140
What is the confluence model?
Birth order does affect personality and cognitive traits. First born more achievement oriented. Later born better social skills
There is a finite amount of intellectual resources to pass on to our children. Only children, first born, kids from 2 kid families do better on measures of key attributes. Pool gets depleted more there are. Confluence model.
141
Sparking and physical punishment effects?
More aggressive toward peers than nonphysical punishment.
Reactive aggression. Angry and retaliate . Most aggressive if parents act aggressive to each other and physically punished.
Mere fact that spanked significantly increases the likelihood will be aggressive w peers. Not matter how often, how hard.
142
Piaget thought lying? ☺
First to look at deception
Kids lie by 7
Intentional and improves w age
Under 6 lies...something not supposed to say, like dirty words
6 to 10...label any untrue statement as a lie
11 understand only intentional untrue statement is a lie
Until 7 spontaneously alter truth due to egocentrism. Sometimes just errors in recall or mistakes.
More recent research says kids lie by 4 to get out if trouble or get a reward.
143
Effects of tv violence
Ave kid most time consuming activity.
Lower iq, low income, minority group watch the most
Aggressive models increase aggression.
Overestimate amount of violence in world. Way solve things. World is scary. Hardens them and more likely to tolerate in others.
Preschool ...Less creativity, less imaginative, poorer school adjustment, lower language ability, motor restlessness
Optimistic if pro social stuff. Increase task persistence and frustration tolerance. Smarter kids and low ses had most gains. Pro social modeling no effect on aggressive behavior.
Changes sex tole stereotypes. Gender roles. Watching non traditional. Tv characters do act as role models. Less stereotypical after watched ESP if followed by a discussion.
144
Intelligence and aging.
Similarities and digit span moderate decline. Performance declines.
V, c, I, a. No decline.
Cantrell..crystalized. Depends experience. Learned. Verbal subtests. Stable or increases.
Fluid on spot reasoning. Complex relationships and tied to CNS fx
Peaks early adulthood.
145
Who adjusts to retirement well?
Have health and finances
Those involved In activities before and after retirement.
Adjust to old age...those have money, active and socially involved. Self esteem, marital status, health and previous adjustment.
146
Which happens during concrete op?
A. Reversibility and decent ration leading to conservation at the beginning.
B. reversibility and decent ration leading to conservation at the end
C. Conservation skills il develop in an invariant sequence
D. Child's thinking results in inability to conserve.
C
