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Developmental Psychology > Development in Context: Families, Peers and the Sociocultrual World > Flashcards

Development in Context: Families, Peers and the Sociocultrual World Flashcards

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1
Q

Family changes throughout the world

A
  • delayed marriages, decreased birth rate and smaller families
  • more diverse family structures
  • more multigenerational families
  • members spatially dispersed
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2
Q

Families in SA: most children grow up in…

A
  • 63% extended families

- 35% nuclear families

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3
Q

Functions of the family

A
  • survival goal
  • economic goal
  • cultural goal
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4
Q

Family systems theory

A

The family consists of interrelated parts, each of which affects and is affected by every other part, and each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.

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5
Q

Attachment

A

the close relationship between the infant and their caregiver

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6
Q

factors that influence attachment security

A
  • quality of caregiving
  • infant characteristics
  • the broader context
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7
Q

Bowlby’s early attachment theory

A

the first attachment relationship shapes later development and the quality of later relationships through internal working models of self and others.

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8
Q

Secure

A
  • positive image of self and of others
  • secure attachment history
  • healthy balance of attachment and autonomy
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9
Q

Preoccupied

A
  • positive image of others, negative image of self
  • resistant attachment history
  • desperate for love to feel worthy as a person
  • worry about abandonment
  • express anxiety and danger openly
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10
Q

Dismissing

A
  • negative model of others, positive model of self
  • avoidant attachment history
  • shut out emotions
  • defend against hurt by avoiding intimacy
  • dismissing the importance of relationships
  • compulsively self-reliant
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11
Q

Fearful

A
  • negative model of self, negative model of others
  • disorganised-disorientated attachment history
  • need relationships but doubt own worth and fear intimacy
  • lack a coherent strategy for meeting attachment needs
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12
Q

Infants in institutions attachment style…

A

tend to show disturbed social and emotional adjustment in childhood.

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13
Q

Fathers in many cultures…

A
  • spend less time interacting with infants

- spend more time in rough-and-tumble play

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14
Q

impact of a new baby on the marital relationship is influenced by…

A
  • age and length of marriage
  • expectations of parenthood
  • family histories
  • social support
  • infant temperament and behaviour
  • prior quality of marital relationship
  • shared caregiving
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15
Q

The impact of the marital relationship on the infant

A

Parents who have a close, supportive relationship with each other are often more involved, patient, sensitive and responsive with their babies than those who have a tense or negative relationship.

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16
Q

Authoritative parent

A

High acceptance
high control
-Children of authoritative parents: cheerful, self-controlled, cooperative, socially and academically competent

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17
Q

Authoritarian

A

low acceptance
high control
-Children of authoritarian parents: unhappy, irritable and/or dependent

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18
Q

Permissive

A

high acceptance
low control
-Children of permissive parents: impulsive, rebellious and poor achievers

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19
Q

Neglectful

A

low acceptance
low control
-Children of neglectful parents: aggressive and antisocial

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20
Q

Cultural bias of parenting style

A

Certain parenting styles are more popular and more effective in some cultures than in others.

“Competent” parenting is not necessarily middle-class western patterns of child rearing, but rather the style of parenting that encourages the particular abilities that children will need for success within their particular (sub)culture.

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21
Q

Child influences on parents

A

Children’s personality characteristics influence the parenting they receive.

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22
Q

Parent-adolescent closeness

A

Adolescents who are securely attached to their parents tend to be better adjusted and more socially competent.

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23
Q

Parent-adolescent conflict

A
  • In most cultures, conflict with parents increases in early adolescence.
  • However, conflict is more common in cultures that value autonomy than in those that value interdependence.
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24
Q

The role of grandparents

A
  • Carer or surrogate parent
  • Companion, friend, and confidante
  • Mentor, teacher, and role model
  • Family historian
  • Provider of tangible support
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25
Q

Grandparents raising grandchildren

A

Although custodial grandparenting can be stressful, research from sub-Saharan Africa has found that children who live with a grandmother (and no mother) are just as well-adjusted psychologically as those living with their mothers.

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26
Q

the impact of grandparents on children’s development

A

Grandparents can promote children’s development both directly, by forming warm relationships with them, and indirectly, by providing parents with child-rearing advice, models of child-rearing, and financial assistance.

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27
Q

Children raised in poverty are more likely to:

A
  • perform poorly at school
  • become involved in delinquent behaviour
  • have unwanted pregnancies
  • develop emotional problems
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28
Q

why do poverty related problems occur? direct effects

A

Children in poverty often have less adequate:

  • prenatal and antenatal environments
  • housing, nutrition and medical care
  • school and play environments
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29
Q

why do poverty related problems occur? indirect effects

A

Poverty has negative effects on the emotional well-being of caretakers, and in turn on family life and the quality of child care.

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30
Q

child maltreatment

A

Any interaction, or lack of interaction, by a parent or caretaker which results in non-accidental harm to the child’s physical and/or developmental state

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31
Q

types of maltreatment

A
  • physical abuse
  • sexual abuse
  • physical neglect
  • emotional maltreatment
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32
Q

What are the effects of maltreatment?

A
  • Emotional problems
  • Behaviour problems
  • Social problems
  • Cognitive deficits and academic difficulties

-Effects seem to be similar for children who witness family violence but are not themselves abused.

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33
Q

why does child maltreatment occur? the microsystem

A
  1. the abuser risk factors:
    - Psychopathology and substance abuse
    - History of abuse
    - Reliance on power-assertive discipline
    - Insecurity, low self-esteem
    - Difficulty appreciating child’s perspective and needs
    - Unreasonable expectations of children
  2. the abused risk factors:
    - Younger age
    - Gender
    - “Difficult” temperament
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34
Q

why does child maltreatment occur? the exosystem

A

Abuse is most common in poor, stressed families with little social support.

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35
Q

why does child maltreatment occur? the macrosystem

A
  • Acceptance of violence and physical punishment as a means of power and control
  • Unequal power relations
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36
Q

how to prevent child abuse

A
  • Identifying high-risk families and teaching coping and parenting skills
  • Education
  • Legal and policy changes
  • Attacking social problems like unemployment, poverty and substance abuse
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37
Q

how to treat child abuse: parents

A
  • Teaching effective coping and parenting skills

- Providing social support

38
Q

how to treat child abuse: children

A

Crisis services, individual child therapy, and group counselling programs

39
Q

South African father stats

A
  1. 5% of children had a deceased father
  2. 8% had absent fathers

i.e. Increasing separation and distance of men from lives of children

40
Q

Do children need fathers?

A
  • Children of single mothers are more likely to have psychological problems than children from two-parent families.
  • However, this is probably not due to the absence of a parent per se.
  • Having a father is not essential for a child’s psychological development.
  • However, positive father involvement (e.g., economic support, authoritative parenting) is linked with desirable outcomes among children.
41
Q

The Fatherhood project

A

-An initiative of the Child, Youth, Family and Social Development programme at the HSRC

Simple messages for men:

  • Acknowledge your child
  • Keep contact even if you don’t live with your child
  • Give your child love and guidance even if you can’t give financial support
42
Q

What effects does divorce have?

A

On average, children from divorced families have more psychological, school and peer problems.

43
Q

How long do divorce effects last?

A

Most problems disappear within a few years, although some may persist for longer.

44
Q

Why do divorce effects occur?

A
  • Loss of a parent
  • Reduced economic resources
  • More life stress
  • Poor parental adjustment
  • Deterioration of parenting – N.B.
  • Exposure to interparental conflict – N.B.
45
Q

What factors help children adjust to divorce?

A
  • Positive family relationships including:
  • —Authoritative parenting
  • —Cooperation and low conflict between parents
  • Adequate finances
  • Social support
  • Minimal additional stressors
46
Q

Remarriage and reconstituted families

A

-The more marital transitions primary school children have experienced, the poorer their adjustment is likely to be.

But long-term outcomes are influenced by:

  • Age
  • Gender
  • Parenting
47
Q

Adopted children

A
  • On average, adopted children experience more problems than non-adopted children.
  • However, the majority of adopted children seem to adjust well and to function normally.
48
Q

Gay and lesbian parents

A

Children with gay or lesbian parents are no more likely than children from heterosexual homes to:

  • have psychological problems
  • be lesbian or gay themselves
49
Q

Conclusion to family structure

A

It is what happens within families, not the way families are composed, that seems to matter most.

50
Q

The impact of a sibling’s arrival

A

Sibling rivalry – a spirit of competition, jealousy or resentment between siblings

51
Q

The impact of a sibling’s arrival is minimised if:

A
  • Parents continue to provide first-born with love and attention (without being over-indulgent)
  • Parents help the older child to see the infant as a person, and involve them in caring for the infant
52
Q

Sibling relationships are more positive when:

A
  • Children have “easy” temperaments
  • Parents have a good relationship
  • Parents treat siblings fairly
53
Q

Sibling relationships in adolescence and adulthood

A
  • Sibling relationships become less intense and more equal

- But ambivalence remains (conflict and closeness)

54
Q

Direct contributions of siblings to development: positive effects

A
  • Emotional support
  • Caretaking services
  • Teaching
55
Q

Direct contributions of siblings to development: Negative effects:

A

Younger siblings growing up with aggressive older siblings are more likely to develop adjustment problems

56
Q

indirect contributions of siblings to development: childrearing

A

Parents’ (and teachers’) experiences with older siblings influence their expectations of subsequent children and the child-rearing/teaching strategies that they consider effective.

57
Q

Differential treatment is associated with poor emotional and behavioural functioning if

A
  • the child has a poor individual relationship with his/her parents
  • the child perceives this differential treatment to be unfair/unjustified
58
Q

Who is a peer?

A

A companion who is of approximately the same age and developmental level.

59
Q

Peer relations in infancy

A

Infants are interested in other infants and begin to interact socially with them around 6 months of age.

60
Q

Peer relations in childhood

A
  • Peer acceptance and popularity
  • Friendship
  • Bullying
61
Q

Peer acceptance and popularity-Sociometric surveys

A

ask children to state their preferences for other group members with respect to some definite criterion.

62
Q

Categories of social status:

A

popular
rejected
neglected
controversial

63
Q

Correlates of peer acceptance:

A
  • Physical appearance
  • Academic and physical competence
  • Emotional regulation
  • Social competence (NB)
64
Q

Why is peer acceptance important?

A

Peer rejection in childhood is associated with emotional and behavioural problems later in life.

  • Family stress
  • Temperament
  • A negative reputation can become self-perpetuating
65
Q

Friendship

A

A relationship of affection, reciprocity and commitment between two people who see themselves as equals.

66
Q

Bases on friendship in early childhood

A
  • Common activity

- Similarity in observable characteristics

67
Q

Bases on friendship in middle childhood

A
  • Mutual loyalty, respect, kindness, affection

- Psychological similarity

68
Q

Bullying

A

Repeated, systematic acts of physical, verbal and/or relational aggression that are directed towards particular peers.

69
Q

Bullies:

A
  • act aggressively (without provocation) to achieve domination over other children.
  • have quite a good understanding of social interaction, but use this knowledge in an antisocial way.
70
Q

Victims:

A

tend to be anxious, insecure, lacking in self-esteem and socially isolated.

71
Q

Effects of bullying

A
  • Victims are at increased risk of depression and low self-esteem
  • Bullies are at increased risk of becoming involved in criminal behaviour
72
Q

what can we do about bullying?

A

Whole school approach (Olweus):

  • Target entire school
  • Intervene early
  • Evaluate programs
73
Q

Adolescent friendships

A

Based on:

  • intimacy and self-disclosure
  • Similarity in interests, values, beliefs and attitudes
74
Q

Adolescent cliques and crowds

A

Clique: a group of several young people that stays small enough to allow its members to be in regular contact

Crowd: a mixed-sex collection of up to about four cliques, involved in arranging social activities.

75
Q

adolescent romantic relationships

A

challenge is to integrate needs for security, intimacy and sexual gratification

76
Q

4 stages of adolescent romantic relationships (Bradford Brown)

A
  1. Initiation phase
  2. Status phase
  3. Affection phase
  4. Bonding phase
77
Q

Adult friendships

A

As adults get older, social networks tend to shrink, but friendships based on trust, intimacy and loyalty remain important.

78
Q

Why do we choose the romantic partners we choose? Adults

A

Enduring partners usually have similar backgrounds and psychological characteristics

79
Q

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

A
  1. intimacy
  2. passion
  3. commitment

intimacy + passion = romantic love
intimacy + commitment = companionate love
commitment + passion = fatuous love

all together = consummate love

80
Q

Western romance pattern

A
  • romantic relationships typically move from an initial focus on passion to companionate love characterised by intimacy and commitment.
  • However, the Western emphasis on passionate love in mate selection is not typical of all cultures.
81
Q

Contributions of peers to development

A

Friends provide:

  • contexts for developing social skills
  • information
  • emotional support
  • models of intimate relationships
82
Q

physical health of television

A

Heavy television viewing is associated with an increased risk of:

  • obesity
  • sleep problems
  • smoking
83
Q

Television form

A

Young children may confuse TV make-believe and reality

84
Q

Television content: influences on prosocial behaviour

A

Cooperative, helpful models stimulate prosocial behaviour in preschoolers

85
Q

Television content: influences on aggression

A

Heavy exposure to TV violence contributes towards aggressive behaviour in childhood and adulthood (Huesmann et al., 2003)

86
Q

Television content: influences on aggression

why?

A
  • Children may model an aggressive hero
  • Children can learn new aggressive behaviours through observation
  • Television violence can contribute to a sense of danger and insecurity, and
  • can cause desensitisation towards violence
87
Q

television influences on sexual attitudes

A
  • Exposure to sexual content on television is less harmful than exposure to screen violence
  • However, a combination of sex and violence can produce antisocial attitudes
88
Q

television influences on social stereotypes

A

TV may transmit stereotyped attitudes toward gender, ethnic groups, foreigners, etc.

89
Q

COMPUTER GAMES

A

Carry some of the same risks as TV, but may also improve cognitive skills and academic performance.

90
Q

How can the impact of the media be made more positive?

A
  • Supervise how much TV children watch
  • Restrict access to inappropriate content
  • Encourage viewing of educational programs
  • Teach children to look critically at the media
  • Watch and discuss TV with children

Developmental Psychology (13 decks)

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