Development in Context: Families, Peers and the Sociocultrual World Flashcards
Family changes throughout the world
- delayed marriages, decreased birth rate and smaller families
- more diverse family structures
- more multigenerational families
- members spatially dispersed
Families in SA: most children grow up in…
- 63% extended families
- 35% nuclear families
Functions of the family
- survival goal
- economic goal
- cultural goal
Family systems theory
The family consists of interrelated parts, each of which affects and is affected by every other part, and each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.
Attachment
the close relationship between the infant and their caregiver
factors that influence attachment security
- quality of caregiving
- infant characteristics
- the broader context
Bowlby’s early attachment theory
the first attachment relationship shapes later development and the quality of later relationships through internal working models of self and others.
Secure
- positive image of self and of others
- secure attachment history
- healthy balance of attachment and autonomy
Preoccupied
- positive image of others, negative image of self
- resistant attachment history
- desperate for love to feel worthy as a person
- worry about abandonment
- express anxiety and danger openly
Dismissing
- negative model of others, positive model of self
- avoidant attachment history
- shut out emotions
- defend against hurt by avoiding intimacy
- dismissing the importance of relationships
- compulsively self-reliant
Fearful
- negative model of self, negative model of others
- disorganised-disorientated attachment history
- need relationships but doubt own worth and fear intimacy
- lack a coherent strategy for meeting attachment needs
Infants in institutions attachment style…
tend to show disturbed social and emotional adjustment in childhood.
Fathers in many cultures…
- spend less time interacting with infants
- spend more time in rough-and-tumble play
impact of a new baby on the marital relationship is influenced by…
- age and length of marriage
- expectations of parenthood
- family histories
- social support
- infant temperament and behaviour
- prior quality of marital relationship
- shared caregiving
The impact of the marital relationship on the infant
Parents who have a close, supportive relationship with each other are often more involved, patient, sensitive and responsive with their babies than those who have a tense or negative relationship.
Authoritative parent
High acceptance
high control
-Children of authoritative parents: cheerful, self-controlled, cooperative, socially and academically competent
Authoritarian
low acceptance
high control
-Children of authoritarian parents: unhappy, irritable and/or dependent
Permissive
high acceptance
low control
-Children of permissive parents: impulsive, rebellious and poor achievers
Neglectful
low acceptance
low control
-Children of neglectful parents: aggressive and antisocial
Cultural bias of parenting style
Certain parenting styles are more popular and more effective in some cultures than in others.
“Competent” parenting is not necessarily middle-class western patterns of child rearing, but rather the style of parenting that encourages the particular abilities that children will need for success within their particular (sub)culture.
Child influences on parents
Children’s personality characteristics influence the parenting they receive.
Parent-adolescent closeness
Adolescents who are securely attached to their parents tend to be better adjusted and more socially competent.
Parent-adolescent conflict
- In most cultures, conflict with parents increases in early adolescence.
- However, conflict is more common in cultures that value autonomy than in those that value interdependence.
The role of grandparents
- Carer or surrogate parent
- Companion, friend, and confidante
- Mentor, teacher, and role model
- Family historian
- Provider of tangible support
Grandparents raising grandchildren
Although custodial grandparenting can be stressful, research from sub-Saharan Africa has found that children who live with a grandmother (and no mother) are just as well-adjusted psychologically as those living with their mothers.
the impact of grandparents on children’s development
Grandparents can promote children’s development both directly, by forming warm relationships with them, and indirectly, by providing parents with child-rearing advice, models of child-rearing, and financial assistance.
Children raised in poverty are more likely to:
- perform poorly at school
- become involved in delinquent behaviour
- have unwanted pregnancies
- develop emotional problems
why do poverty related problems occur? direct effects
Children in poverty often have less adequate:
- prenatal and antenatal environments
- housing, nutrition and medical care
- school and play environments
why do poverty related problems occur? indirect effects
Poverty has negative effects on the emotional well-being of caretakers, and in turn on family life and the quality of child care.
child maltreatment
Any interaction, or lack of interaction, by a parent or caretaker which results in non-accidental harm to the child’s physical and/or developmental state
types of maltreatment
- physical abuse
- sexual abuse
- physical neglect
- emotional maltreatment
What are the effects of maltreatment?
- Emotional problems
- Behaviour problems
- Social problems
- Cognitive deficits and academic difficulties
-Effects seem to be similar for children who witness family violence but are not themselves abused.
why does child maltreatment occur? the microsystem
- the abuser risk factors:
- Psychopathology and substance abuse
- History of abuse
- Reliance on power-assertive discipline
- Insecurity, low self-esteem
- Difficulty appreciating child’s perspective and needs
- Unreasonable expectations of children - the abused risk factors:
- Younger age
- Gender
- “Difficult” temperament
why does child maltreatment occur? the exosystem
Abuse is most common in poor, stressed families with little social support.
why does child maltreatment occur? the macrosystem
- Acceptance of violence and physical punishment as a means of power and control
- Unequal power relations
how to prevent child abuse
- Identifying high-risk families and teaching coping and parenting skills
- Education
- Legal and policy changes
- Attacking social problems like unemployment, poverty and substance abuse
how to treat child abuse: parents
- Teaching effective coping and parenting skills
- Providing social support
how to treat child abuse: children
Crisis services, individual child therapy, and group counselling programs
South African father stats
- 5% of children had a deceased father
- 8% had absent fathers
i.e. Increasing separation and distance of men from lives of children
Do children need fathers?
- Children of single mothers are more likely to have psychological problems than children from two-parent families.
- However, this is probably not due to the absence of a parent per se.
- Having a father is not essential for a child’s psychological development.
- However, positive father involvement (e.g., economic support, authoritative parenting) is linked with desirable outcomes among children.
The Fatherhood project
-An initiative of the Child, Youth, Family and Social Development programme at the HSRC
Simple messages for men:
- Acknowledge your child
- Keep contact even if you don’t live with your child
- Give your child love and guidance even if you can’t give financial support
What effects does divorce have?
On average, children from divorced families have more psychological, school and peer problems.
How long do divorce effects last?
Most problems disappear within a few years, although some may persist for longer.
Why do divorce effects occur?
- Loss of a parent
- Reduced economic resources
- More life stress
- Poor parental adjustment
- Deterioration of parenting – N.B.
- Exposure to interparental conflict – N.B.
What factors help children adjust to divorce?
- Positive family relationships including:
- —Authoritative parenting
- —Cooperation and low conflict between parents
- Adequate finances
- Social support
- Minimal additional stressors
Remarriage and reconstituted families
-The more marital transitions primary school children have experienced, the poorer their adjustment is likely to be.
But long-term outcomes are influenced by:
- Age
- Gender
- Parenting
Adopted children
- On average, adopted children experience more problems than non-adopted children.
- However, the majority of adopted children seem to adjust well and to function normally.
Gay and lesbian parents
Children with gay or lesbian parents are no more likely than children from heterosexual homes to:
- have psychological problems
- be lesbian or gay themselves
Conclusion to family structure
It is what happens within families, not the way families are composed, that seems to matter most.
The impact of a sibling’s arrival
Sibling rivalry – a spirit of competition, jealousy or resentment between siblings
The impact of a sibling’s arrival is minimised if:
- Parents continue to provide first-born with love and attention (without being over-indulgent)
- Parents help the older child to see the infant as a person, and involve them in caring for the infant
Sibling relationships are more positive when:
- Children have “easy” temperaments
- Parents have a good relationship
- Parents treat siblings fairly
Sibling relationships in adolescence and adulthood
- Sibling relationships become less intense and more equal
- But ambivalence remains (conflict and closeness)
Direct contributions of siblings to development: positive effects
- Emotional support
- Caretaking services
- Teaching
Direct contributions of siblings to development: Negative effects:
Younger siblings growing up with aggressive older siblings are more likely to develop adjustment problems
indirect contributions of siblings to development: childrearing
Parents’ (and teachers’) experiences with older siblings influence their expectations of subsequent children and the child-rearing/teaching strategies that they consider effective.
Differential treatment is associated with poor emotional and behavioural functioning if
- the child has a poor individual relationship with his/her parents
- the child perceives this differential treatment to be unfair/unjustified
Who is a peer?
A companion who is of approximately the same age and developmental level.
Peer relations in infancy
Infants are interested in other infants and begin to interact socially with them around 6 months of age.
Peer relations in childhood
- Peer acceptance and popularity
- Friendship
- Bullying
Peer acceptance and popularity-Sociometric surveys
ask children to state their preferences for other group members with respect to some definite criterion.
Categories of social status:
popular
rejected
neglected
controversial
Correlates of peer acceptance:
- Physical appearance
- Academic and physical competence
- Emotional regulation
- Social competence (NB)
Why is peer acceptance important?
Peer rejection in childhood is associated with emotional and behavioural problems later in life.
- Family stress
- Temperament
- A negative reputation can become self-perpetuating
Friendship
A relationship of affection, reciprocity and commitment between two people who see themselves as equals.
Bases on friendship in early childhood
- Common activity
- Similarity in observable characteristics
Bases on friendship in middle childhood
- Mutual loyalty, respect, kindness, affection
- Psychological similarity
Bullying
Repeated, systematic acts of physical, verbal and/or relational aggression that are directed towards particular peers.
Bullies:
- act aggressively (without provocation) to achieve domination over other children.
- have quite a good understanding of social interaction, but use this knowledge in an antisocial way.
Victims:
tend to be anxious, insecure, lacking in self-esteem and socially isolated.
Effects of bullying
- Victims are at increased risk of depression and low self-esteem
- Bullies are at increased risk of becoming involved in criminal behaviour
what can we do about bullying?
Whole school approach (Olweus):
- Target entire school
- Intervene early
- Evaluate programs
Adolescent friendships
Based on:
- intimacy and self-disclosure
- Similarity in interests, values, beliefs and attitudes
Adolescent cliques and crowds
Clique: a group of several young people that stays small enough to allow its members to be in regular contact
Crowd: a mixed-sex collection of up to about four cliques, involved in arranging social activities.
adolescent romantic relationships
challenge is to integrate needs for security, intimacy and sexual gratification
4 stages of adolescent romantic relationships (Bradford Brown)
- Initiation phase
- Status phase
- Affection phase
- Bonding phase
Adult friendships
As adults get older, social networks tend to shrink, but friendships based on trust, intimacy and loyalty remain important.
Why do we choose the romantic partners we choose? Adults
Enduring partners usually have similar backgrounds and psychological characteristics
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
- intimacy
- passion
- commitment
intimacy + passion = romantic love
intimacy + commitment = companionate love
commitment + passion = fatuous love
all together = consummate love
Western romance pattern
- romantic relationships typically move from an initial focus on passion to companionate love characterised by intimacy and commitment.
- However, the Western emphasis on passionate love in mate selection is not typical of all cultures.
Contributions of peers to development
Friends provide:
- contexts for developing social skills
- information
- emotional support
- models of intimate relationships
physical health of television
Heavy television viewing is associated with an increased risk of:
- obesity
- sleep problems
- smoking
Television form
Young children may confuse TV make-believe and reality
Television content: influences on prosocial behaviour
Cooperative, helpful models stimulate prosocial behaviour in preschoolers
Television content: influences on aggression
Heavy exposure to TV violence contributes towards aggressive behaviour in childhood and adulthood (Huesmann et al., 2003)
Television content: influences on aggression
why?
- Children may model an aggressive hero
- Children can learn new aggressive behaviours through observation
- Television violence can contribute to a sense of danger and insecurity, and
- can cause desensitisation towards violence
television influences on sexual attitudes
- Exposure to sexual content on television is less harmful than exposure to screen violence
- However, a combination of sex and violence can produce antisocial attitudes
television influences on social stereotypes
TV may transmit stereotyped attitudes toward gender, ethnic groups, foreigners, etc.
COMPUTER GAMES
Carry some of the same risks as TV, but may also improve cognitive skills and academic performance.
How can the impact of the media be made more positive?
- Supervise how much TV children watch
- Restrict access to inappropriate content
- Encourage viewing of educational programs
- Teach children to look critically at the media
- Watch and discuss TV with children
