Development Flashcards
Biological aging is due to
metabolic changes
The two types of metabolic changes
anabolism - body building to peak; from birth to about 30
catabolism - body’s slow deterioration from peak to eath
psychological aging
a person’s perception of their age
“feeling old” vs “feeling young”
social aging
how one’s chronological age is viewed within the societal or cultural context; how it is affected by vocation and SES
e.g. Asian countries - old are valued
Epigenetic
The study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself
Acknowledging the relationship of nature and nurture
Most developmental theories (Freud, Erikson, Piaget) are epigenetic
Stage theories are an example of…
Discontinuous development (vs. continuous, like Skinner’s operant conditioning)
Discontinuous development
Changes in behaviors and abilities are qualitatively different from previous or subsequent behaviors and abilities
Jumping to qualitatively different and more advanced levels
Ex: Stage theories like Piaget and Erikson
Continuous development
emphasizes small shifts or gradual, sequential changs that occur over time and are difficult to separate
Ex: Skinner’s operant conditioning
Active vs reactive theories
Active theories portray people as active in regulating or governing their behavior (ex: Erikson’s psychosocial theory)
Reactive theories, people are passive and react to environmental stimuli (ex: Skinner’s operant conditioning)
Features of survey research
Large sample sizes ( >100) are needed
Sampling bias can negatively affect generalizability of findings
Cross-sectional design studies
simultaneously examine several groups from differing levels of development (e.g. 5 y.o.s, 10, 15)
Less expensive and take less time than longitudinal studies
May be influenced by “cohort effect” - people born during the same time have similar lived experiences and are qualitatively different from those born years earlier/later; differences that are unique to their age and lead to shared experiences within the cohort
Time-lag studies (AKA ____)
AKA cohort sequential studies
Involve replications of previous studies on a modern-day cohort
Ex: Study of parental discipline style conducted in 1960s is repeated today to see if styles have changed since 60s
Myelination
insulation of neurons to enhance speed of neural transmissions
By age ___, the brain begins to lose neurons
30
The brain is its full adult size by age ___
16
The 3 main areas of the brain and what they do
Hindbrain: life maintenance and survival
Midbrain: connects hindbrain and forebrain, controls eye muscles and relays auditory and visual information
Forebrain - higher-order behavior and conscious thought
Medulla oblongata
Part of the hindbrain
Regulates heart and breathing
Cerebellum
Part of the hindbrain
Regulates balance
Pons
Part of the hindbrain
connects the left and right cerebellum
Reticular activating system
Part of the hindbrain
Regulates arousal and attention
Left hemisphere
Part of the forebrain
Controls the right side of the body
Language and writing
Logical and systematic thought
Right hemisphere
Part of the forebrain Controls the left side of the body Muscle abilities Imagination Emotional expression
Corpus callosum
Part of the forebrain
Bundle of nerve cells that connect the left and right hemispheres
Allows L and R brain to integrate cognitive, emotional, and bodily functions
Cerebral cortex
Part of the forebrain
Covers the L and R hemispheres
Responsible for memory, concentration, problem-solving, muscle coordination
Has 4 lobes
The 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex
Occipital - interpret sensory information through eyes
Parietal - spatial reasoning and sense of touch
Temporal - hearing and storage of permanent memory
Frontal - regulates sense of smell, body control, and movement
Limbic system
Concerned with emotions and motivation
Contains the hypothalamus (pleasure and pain, hunger, thirst, sexual functions, body temp)
Amygdala (behavior and activities - sexual interest, feeding, anger)
Hippocampus - memory
Lateralization AKA ____
AKA hemispheric specialization (left-brain or right-brain dominance) begins early in development and gradually through childhood
Autosomal diseases
Genetic disorders that involve a chromosome other than the sex chromosome
Phenylketonuria
Sickle cell anemia
Tay-Sachs disease (Jews of European descent, can’t metabolize fat)
X-linked diseases
passed on by the X chromosome
hemophilia
Sex chromosomal diseases
Involve a genetic anomaly on the sex-determining pair of chromosomes, usually affecting male or female characteristic displays or sexual reproduction Turner syndrome (XO) - underdeveloped ovaries and incomplete sexual development; short; webbed neck Kleinfelter's syndrome (XXY) - males are tall, high body fat, incomplete sex characteristics; sterile
Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli, while operant conditioning pairs behavior and response (punishment) Unconditioned Stimulus - Meat Unconditioned Response - Salivating Conditioned Stimulus - Bell Conditioned Response - Salivating
Simultaneous vs. delayed vs. backward conditioning
In classical conditioning
Simultaneous - most effective - US (meat) and CS (bell) are presented at the same time
Delayed - CS (bell) starts first but overlaps presentation of the US (meat)
Backward - US (meat) is presented before CS (bell)
Spontaneous recovery
In classical conditioning, when the CS/CR (Bell and Salivating) connection is reestablished. This led Pavlov to believe that learning is never totally lost or forgotten, just inhibited and waiting to be revived
John B. Watson
“Father of American behaviorism”
“Little Albert”
Paired white rat (CS) with loud noise (US) which resulted in fear (UR) to create fear of rats (CR)
Joseph Wolpe
Applied classical conditioning to psychotherapy
Reciprocal inhibition
A person cannot engage in 2 mutually exclusive events simultaneously. (e.g., anxious and relaxed). The basis for systematic desensitization. Coined by Joseph Wolpe
Systematic desensitization
Treatment for phobias created by Wolpe
Developing a fear hierarchy
Periodically introducing each step while the client maintains a state of relaxation
Uses idea of reciprocal inhibition - the client cannot be both fearful and relaxed at the same time
Counterconditioning
Developed by Wolpe (classical conditioning)
A strong pleasant stimulus is paired with a weak aversive stimulus
Aversive counterconditioning
Developed by Wolpe (classical conditioning)
A very unpleasant stimulus is applied when a maladaptive response is made. Snapping a rubber band when a negative thought comes up.
Flooding
Developed by Wolpe (classical conditioning)
A stimulus that provokes anxiety is continuously presented until the client unlearns the response or becomes too fatigued to respond
Edward L. Thorndike
Beginnings of operant conditioning
Came up with the Law of Effect
Law of Effect
by Thorndike. The beginnings of operant conditioning
When a response (R) accompanying some stimulus (S) is followed by a satisfying reward, a connection is made and the response is likely to be repeated.
The reverse is true as well - if you don’t get a reward, or if you get punished, you won’t do the behavior
B. F. Skinner
Came up with operant conditioning
The premise is very similar to Thorndike’s Law of Effect - a response/behavior is either strengthened or diminished because of the consequence that follows it
Positive reinforcement
Operant conditioning
Adding a stimulus (reward) after a response to increase the likelihood that the behavior will reoccur
Negative reinforcement
Operant conditioning
When removing a stimulus (e.g. loud noise) increases the frequency of a given behavior
Punishment
Operant conditioning
Adding or removing a stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior
Reinforcement vs Punishment
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement - Increases behavior
Punishment - Decreases behavior
Positive - stimulus is added
Negative - stimulus is taken away
Reinforcers can be…
(in operant conditioning)
Primary or secondary
Primary reinforcers satisfy a basic need (food, rest)
Secondary reinforcers are anything that is associated with a primary need (e.g., money)
Reinforcement schedules
(in operant conditioning)
Fixed ratio - reinforcer after every Xth response (e.g, 5th)
Variable ratio - reinforcer based on an average of responses (10 is the average, but could be 5, 8, 12, 15) - very effective (like slot machines)
Fixed interval - reinforcer after a fixed period of time (15 seconds) - low response rates (paying by the hour)
Variable interval - interval is varied (pop quizzes)
Which are the most and least effective reinforcement schedules?
Most - variable ratio
Least - fixed interval (based on a fixed period of time - paying by the hour)
Albert Bandura
Developed social learning theory
Observational (vicarious) learning, modeling, self-efficacy
Modeling will be more effective if the model is of the same demographic characteristics and has positive interpersonal characteristics (warm, nurturing)
The 4 components of effective modeling (part of the body)
(In Bandura's social learning theory) Attention Retention (memory) Reproduction Motivation (internal or reinforcement increases the motivation and likelihood of mastery)
John Dollard and Neal Miller
“drive” or incentive theorists
believed that anxiety and psychological disturbances were learned from experiences
Most successful form of conditioning
delayed conditioning, in which the US (meat) turns on with a “short” delay after the CS (bell) turns on
Primary vs secondary drives
Part of Dollard and Miller’s drive theory
Primary drives - innate (thirst, hunger)
Secondary drives - learned (parental approval, peer acceptance)
Piagetian terms
Organization - ability to organize and classify new information, the basis of mental development
Accommodation
Assimilation
Assimilation vs. accommodation
Piagetian terms
Assimilation - adding a thought to an existing framework
Accommodation - interpreting new information in a way that restructures or changes an existing schema
Piaget believed that people learn when they experience ____
Disequilibrium - some conflict or challenge to the person’s way of thinking
People naturally want equilibration - making sense of the new information - through assimilation and accommodation
Piaget’s stages and ages
Sensorimotor (birth - 2)
Preoperational (2-7)
Concrete operational (7-11)
Formal operational (11+)
What happens in the sensorimotor stage?
Piaget
Age birth-2
touching, learn cause-and-effect, trial-and-error, problem solving, and object permenance
What happens in the preoperational stage?
Piaget
Age 2-7
Egocentric thinking, centration or centering, animism, irreversibility
What happens in the concrete operational stage?
Piaget Age 7-11 Using symbols Understand reversibility Reduced ecocentrism But still unable to reason abstractly
What happens in the formal operational stage?
Piaget
Age 11+ but some people never get there
Abstract thinking
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning (deducing a conclusion given a premise)
Lev Vygotsky
Cognitive developmental theory
Zone of proximal development (gap between what children can learn on their own and what they are potentially able to learn with help)
Scaffolding - supports for children to learn
Private speech - starts at age 7 - guides behavior
Types of memory
Sensory or trace memory - environmental stimuli; only retained for a few seconds
Short-term memory - 7+/- 2 items
Long-term memory - relatively permanent
Echoic vs. iconic memory storage
echoic - auditory info
iconic - visual info
Retrieval theory
(AKA poor retrieval theory)
Purports that info is held in long-term memory forever but we don’t have the cues to retrieve it. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Interference theory
Proposes that learned information is inhibited by other learning experiences (retroactive inhibition vs proactive inhibition)
Retroactive inhibition
When you lose memory because new information interferes with old information you know
Proactive inhibition
When you lose memory because old information interferes with newly learned information
Memory strategies
Chunking (grouping info into chunks)
Method of loci (guided visual imagery - in a familiar area in a given sequence)
Eidetic memory - “photographic memory” - using visual images to recall visual information
Yerkes-Dodson law
Memory and performance are optimized when a person has a moderate level of arousal. Low and high states of arousal tend to suppress performance
Which is more effective, massed learning or spaced learning?
Spaced learning (1-hour study sessions) instead of Massed learning (one 4-hour session)
Cognitive dissonance
Coined by Leon Festinger
Confirmatory bias
A person’s likelihood of screening for information that confirms previously held beliefs (e.g., hearing what you want to hear)
Imaginary audience
By David Elkind
Describes the adolescent egocentric belief that everyone is watching and critically judging them
Personal fable
The adolescent belief of absolute uniqueness.
Allows the adolescent to engage in reckless behavior because unlike everyone else, nothing will happen to her.
Crystallized intelligence
Proposed by Raymond B. Cattell
Includes verbal and mathematical capabilities and experiences that are learned
Declines less in old age
Fluid intelligence
Proposed by Raymond B. Cattell
Nonverbal problem solving and pattern recognition
Declines in old age
general intelligence (s)
Proposed by Spearman
There is a strong ____ component to intelligence
Genetic
although it develops through social and environmental interactions)
Creativity involves ___ and ___
Divergent thinking (thinking of many possibilities) And convergent thinking (picking the best solution and focusing on the final product)
Between ages 10-12, females outperform males in ___ while males outperform females in ___
verbal ability
math
Significant declines in cognitive abilities begin to occur at age ___
70
Nativist approach
Noam Chomsky
The human brain is genetically programmed to enable people to create and understand language
Sentences are generated using a system of rules made up of surface structures (rules specific to each language) and deep structures (innate and universal rules, like speech sounds)
Pragmatics
How language is used in the social context (ex: taking turns)
Morphology
governs the rules of word formation
Morpheme
The smallest meaningful language unit
Ex: “At” has one
“Boys” has two “boy” and “s”
The areas of the brain that are important in language development
Broca’s area - speech production
Wernicke’s area - speech comprehension
Arcuate fasciculus - bundle of nerve fibers that connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
Motor aphasia
speech is slow and labored
Sensor aphasia
Difficulty understanding language through sense organs
Aphasia
loss of ability to understand or express speech OR difficulty in naming objects, caused by brain damage
At what age does babbling occur?
6 months
At what age can a child produce 50 one-word utterances (holophrases)?
1.5 years
At what age does a child speak in short sentences?
2.5 years
At what age does the child demonstrate basic rules of language consistently?
4 years
Social Communication Disorder
A pragmatic language impairment
The person has difficulty understanding and using verbal and nonverbal social cues
Affects social relationships and comprehension
Anomia
Word finding difficulties
The id is present at ___ and operates on the ___
birth
pleasure principle
The ego is present at __ and operates on the ___
first year of life
reality principle
The supergo is present at ___ and operates on the ___
4th year
morality principle
According to Freud, a conflict causing anxiety occurs when ____
the ego is unable to reconcile the id’s urges with the superego’s moralized response
According to Freud, ____ are used to control ____
defense mechanisms
anxiety
Compensation
Freud
Substituting a successful experience for one that produced failure
Reaction formation
Freud
Expressing the opposite motive that was originally intended in order to help prevent unwanted attitudes or feelings from becoming expressed
Ex: Dude on Tinder starts insulting you after you don’t answer his initial message
Fixation
Freud
Results from an inability to resolve an important conflict
Due to either an overgratification or undergratification of a need in any stage
Freud’s psychosexual stages and ages
Oral (birth-1 year) Anal (1-3 years) Phallic (3-5) Latency (6-11) Genital (adolescence)
In what stage do Oedipus and Electra complexes emerge?
Phallic (3-5 years)
Erikson believed ___ was a key influence on ___
an individual’s learned social interactions within the environment
ego development
Erikson’s stages and ages
Trust vs. mistrust (birth-1 or 2 years) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 or 2-3) Initiative vs. guilt (3-5) Industry vs. inferiority (6-11) Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence) Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood) Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood)
Jane Loevinger
Another ego development theory
10 stages:
Presocial - babies self-differentiate from an outer world
Symbiotic - differentiation of the self from others
Impulsive - affirms separate identity; demanding
Self-protective - Self-control; rule-governed behavior
Conformist - obeys group rules, strives for family acceptance
Self-Awareness/Self-Conscious - strive for stability and maturity
Conscientious - internalize rules; morality
Individualistic - strive for individuality; awareness of inner conflict
Autonomous - strive for self-fulfillment; cope with inner conflict
Integrated - consolidated identity
Humanistic theories are ___. One humanistic theorist is ____
holistic
Abraham Maslow
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Physiological Safety Belongingness Esteem Self-actualization (not usually met until middle adulthood - 60+ years)
Ethological developmental theories emphasize the role of ___. An example of an ethological theorist is ____
instinct Konrad Lorenz John Bowlby Mary Ainsworth Harry Harlow
Konrad Lorenz
Known for studying imprinting on ducks and geese
Imprinting is irreversible
Developed concept of critical or sensitive period
John Bowlby
Described 3 stages he observed in infants exposed to prolonged separations:
protest
despair
detachment (will accept attention from others and seems less unhappy)
Mary Ainsworth
Described 4 patterns of attachment: Secure Avoidant Ambivalent (insecure) Disorganized - show little emotion at separation and mostly confusion at reunion
Harry Harlow
Rhesus monkeys where the babies preferred a cloth mother even if she didn’t have food
Separation anxiety
Occurs in infants normally between 1-2 years
Clinical version: Separation Anxiety Disorder
Four types of identity
by Marcia Identity Achievement Identity Moratorium - unable to decide Identity Foreclosure Identity Diffusion - procrastinating or becoming so confused that the teen is unable or unwilling to even take in and analyze identity-related info that could lead to goal setting
Gender identity occurs by age ___ when ___
by age 3
When children self-refer as a boy or girl
Prosocial behavior
Sensitivity to the needs of others
Occurs in early childhood but is not consistently displayed until later childhood
The 2 types of aggression
Instrumental - aimed at acquiring territory, objects, or rewards (girls)
Hostile aggression - aimed at another person (physical harm, boys)
Sociodramatic play
imitation of adult play
facilitates more mature social interactions among children
Types / stages of sociodramatic play
Nonsocial activity - preschool; children play by themselves
Parallel play - play near each other but not with
Associative play - while engaged in separate activities, children talk and comment on each other’s activities
Cooperative play - play with each other to ahieve a common goal
Self-concept is ____ even if it is negative.
Stable and difficult to change
Activity theory
Theory of adjustment to aging/death
Suggests that as people age they prefer to remain socially active in order to resist self-preoccupation and maintain closer social friendships
Atchley’s 4 stages of retirement
Preretirement - making plans
Immediately after retirement - “Honeymoon” phase with new freedom
Period of disenchantment - novelty wears off and people realize their plans were unrealistic
Reorientation - putting together a satisfactory and realistic lifestyle
Thanatology
the study of grief
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development vs. Gilligan’s
Kohlberg’s is the most influential but has been critisized for being too male-centered
Gilligan’s focuses on the stages women progress though
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development has ____
3 levels, 6 stages
Levels of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Preconventional (punishment/reward-based)
Conventional (familial or societal authority is recognized, people need to conform to rules to avoid social disapproval or criticism)
Postconventional (people examine their own moral codes; acknowledge the dignity of all people)
Stages of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment
Stage 2: Instrumental Hedonism (pleasure is the motivator)
Stage 3: Good boy/Good girl orientation (want to please everyone)
Stage 4: Law and Order (rules are rules)
Stae 5: Social/Moral Contract and System of Laws (general individual rights, these rights have the group’s support and have been arrived at democratically; they are relative and subject to change)
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles (individual decisions based on universal ethical principles; form their own principles and use them to guide behavior and mitigate guilt)
Kohlberg conducted his research using
Defining Issues Test
Heinz dilemma
According to Carol Gilligan, females’ moral judgments are based on
Concerns for an ethic of caring, connectedness, responsibility for others, or compassion
Gilligan’s 3 stages of women’s moral development
Stage 1: Orientation to Individual Survival (focus is on the self)
Stage 2: Goodness as Self-Sacrifice (good is equated with doing good for overs)
Stage 3: Morality of Nonviolence (the woman resolves the conflict between individual needs and caring; realizes she has personal needs while still maintaining an altruistic attitude)
Piaget’s stages of moral development
Based on cognitive awareness
Stage 1: Premoral (limited awareness of rules)
Stage 2: Moral realism (Age 4 or 5; learn moral rules from parents or others but don’t understand the reasoning behind them; believe that a person who creates more damage is “more guilty” than a person who creates less)
Stage 3: Moral relativism (Age 7; understands reasons for rules and that they can be changed by an authority; morality is judged by intention not the consequences)
Arnold Gesell
Believed that human development represents a genetic unfolding of physical, cognitive, language, and social-emotional characteristics or milestones with only slight environmental influence
Developed Gesell scales - assessments that yield a “developmental quotient”
Robert Havighurst
Proposed a series of developmental tasks that humans achieve as they grow and develop from infancy through late adulthood
Like Gesell, believed that the earlier tasks are biologically determined, but unlike Gesell, he said the later tasks were socially and culturally determined
Roger Gould
Studied 1K adults and found that they strove to eliminate false assumptions (protective devices) that restricted development
He saw adult development as a series of task resolutions that allow adults to correct these false assumptions
Ex: I’m nobody’s baby now (22-28) - “my parents will always be there to help when things go wrong”
Robert Peck
Expanded on Erikson’s last 2 stages
Phases of Middle Adult Psychological Changes:
Valuing Wisdom vs. Valuing Physical Powers
Socializing vs. Sexualizing
Cathetic Flexibility vs. Cathetic Impoverishment (must develop the ability to shift emotional energies from one person to another to deal with losses of agemates)
Phases of the Retirement Years Psychological Development:
Ego Differentiation vs. Work-Role Preoccupation
Body Transcendence vs. Body Preoccupation
Ego Transcendence vs. Ego Preoccupation
Daniel Levinson
Studied adult male development and presented a combination task/stage theory. It’s all about transitions.
Ex: “Age 30 Transition” - reassessment of the young adult life structure to make changes before fully joining the adult world
Becoming One’s Own Man (BOOM) - men work at advancement and strive to succeed
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model - levels
Microsystem (immediate family) Mesosystem (interactions between family and community) Exosystem (political system) Macrosystem (social and cultural values) Chronosystem (changes over time)
Name the generations that are currently alive
General Issue (GI) - 1891-1924 Silent Generation - 1925-1942 Baby Boomers - 1943-1960 Generation X - 1961-1981 Millennials (Generation Y) - 1982-2000
Carter & McGoldrick’s stages of family development
Leaving Home Joining Families Through Marriage Welcoming Children into the Family Raising Adolescents Launching Later Family Life
Parenting styles
Authoritarian (autocratic in the extreme)
Authoritative (democratic or egalitarian)
Permissive
Uninvolved (children fare the worst)
What % of first marriages end in divorce?
What about second marriages?
50%
70%
___ are most often the victims of incest, whereas ___ are victims of nonfamily sexual abuse.
Girls
Boys
Types of crises
- developmental (normal)
- environmental (hurricanes, war)
- existential
- situational (unexpected/shocking/traumatic)
- psychiatric (psychosis, drug abuse)
ABC-X model of family crisis
Proposed by Hill A - provoking stressor/event B - family resources C - meaning attached to the event X - the crisis - an acute state of family disequilibrium/immobilization
James & Gilliland’s 6-step model for assessing client needs during a crises
- define the problem
- ensuring client safety
- providing support
- examining alternatives
- making plans
- obtaining commitment
transcrisis
occurs when the traumatic event of an initial crisis is not fully dealt with and becomes submerged in the client’s subconscious
compassion fatigue vs. vicarious trauma
compassion fatigue - AKA secondary traumatic stress reaction - overwhelming feelings after being exposed to client crisis; results in hopelessness, decrease in stress and anxiety, negative attitude
vicarious trama - stress reaction resulting from exposure to client disclosures of trauma. Can lead to compassion fatigue
IS PATH WARM
warning signs of suicide Ideation Substance abuse Purposelessness Anxiety Trapped Hopelessness Withdrawl Anger Recklessness Mood change
SLAP
suicide risk assessment Specific details Lethality of plan Availability of method Proximity to obtaining help
Myers & Sweeny’s evidence-based model of wellness
Indivisible Self - 5 dimensions
- Physical: exercise, nutrition
- Essential: spirituality, gender identity, cultural identity, self-care
- Social: Friendship, love
- Coping: leisure, stress management, self-worth, realistic beliefs
- Creative: thinking, emotions, control, work, positive humor
ADHD begins ___ and the prevalence is ____. It is more common in ____.
prior to age 5
prevalence is 3-7% of school-age population
males (2-9X)
cyclothymic vs. dysthymic
cyclothymic - hypomania and depression
dysthymic - depression that doesn’t meet criteria for a MDE
Trauma disorders - difference between PTSD, Acute Stress Disorder, and Adjustment Disorder
PTSD - not diagnosed until 1 month after trauma
Acute Stress Disorder - only diagnosed within 1 month after the trauma
Adjustment disorders - symptoms begin w/in 3 months after the event and resolve within 6 of the event
Somatic Symptom Disorder
History of physical complaints occurring over several years and causing impairment; complaints are NOT the result of a general medical condition or are far in excess of such condition
Encopresis vs enuresis
Encopresis - depositing of feces in inappropriate places
Enuresis - urination; can be nocturnal or diurnal (during the day)
Both are usually involuntary
Conduct Disorder vs. Oppositional Defiant Disorder
Cannot be simultaneously diagnosed with both
Conduct Disorder - must be under 18
Oppositional Defiant Disorder - any age
Socioemotional Activity Theory
Laura Carstensen
as adults age, they become more selective in who they spend their time with, choosing activities and people from which they draw emotional support and enjoyment.
learning theories of development are active, reactive, or proactive?
reactive
stress inoculation training was developed by ____, while systematic desensitization was developed by ____
Michenbaum
Wolpe
