Development Flashcards
nature vs. nurture
debate about relative contribution of biological processes and experiential
factors of development.
nature
biological characteristics we are born with; innate abilities; reflexes; pre- programmed responses that are presented at birth and are adaptive; innate predisposition to learn.
nurture and two early theorists who believed in this concept
influence begins from conception; unborn child can be highly susceptible to environmental factors.
-J. Locke: Tabula Rosa (i.e., “clean slate”).
-J. Watson: mold any child into what he wanted (behaviorism, Little Albert).
genotype
actual genetic material of the person; may not always be observable.
phenotype
the way a genotype is expressed through observable characteristics, such as
physical attributes and psychological characteristics (e.g., intelligence); identified through direct observation.
gene environment correlations
occurs when an individual selects environments based on genetically influenced traits (not the same as gene-environment interactions, which is when environment alters gene expression).
passive gene environment correlation
parent has the same genes, parent select’s child’s environment (i.e., parents create a home environment influenced by heritable characteristics).
evocative (Reactive) gene environment correlation
individual has genetic trait, expression of trait acts on environment to reinforce itself.
active gene environment correlation
individual has genetic trait, individual seeks out environments to express that trait.
autosomal disorders
caused by genes located on the autosomes (i.e., chromosomes other than sex chromosomes).
huntingtons disease
dominant disorder; causes brain to deteriorate and affects psychological and motor functions; not usually diagnosed until adulthood.
cystic fibrosis
recessive disorder: glandular problem that causes excessive mucus production, which affects the lungs, pancreas, liver, kidneys, and intestines.
sickle cell disease
recessive disorder; causes blood cell deformities, resulting in the blood being unable to carry enough oxygen to keep tissue healthy.
tay sachs disease
recessive disorder common in couples of Jewish and Eastern European heritage; nervous system degenerates and likely to be cognitively impaired and blind by 1-2 years old; few survive past 3 years old.
phenylketonuria (PKU)
recessive gene causes a baby to have problems digesting the amino acid phenylalanine; toxins build up in the baby’s brain and cause cognitive disability; if no foods (e.g., milk) containing the amino acid are ingested, they will not be impaired; early diagnosis critical.
sex linked disorders
caused by genes located on the sex chromosomes (X chromosome); most often linked with recessive genes.
red green color blindness
problems distinguishing between red and green when they are adjacent.
hemophilia
lack the chemical components that cause blood to clot; bleeding doesn’t stop naturally; almost unknown in girls.
fragile x syndrome
X chromosome has a damaged spot; can cause cognitive impairment that becomes progressively worse as the child becomes older.
aneuploidy disorders
variation in number of chromosomes.
down syndrome
trisomy 21; three copies of chromosome 21; cognitive impairment and distinctive facial features, smaller brains, and other physical abnormalities; increased chance of passing on this disorder for mothers 35+.
klinefelter syndrome
sex chromosome abnormality; commonly XXY pattern; affected males usually appear normal but have underdeveloped testes and low sperm production; many have language and learning disabilities; at puberty, experience male and female changes.
turner syndrome
single X chromosome; anatomically female but show stunted growth and are often sterile; without hormone therapy, they do not menstruate or develop breasts at puberty; ¼ have serious heart defects; imbalanced cognitive abilities (poor spatial ability but high verbal ability).
gestation (prenatal development) and the three stages
process that transfers a zygote (single cell created when sperm and ovum unite) into a newborn; 38-40 weeks total; 23 weeks is the least amount for baby to survive, but you are essentially ready at 37 weeks; there are 3 phases of gestation:
1) germinal stage
2) embryonic stage
3) fetal stage
germinal stage of gestation
first 2 weeks of germination (conception to implantation); cells specialize into what will become the fetus’ body; rapid cell division.
-Day 5: blastocyst (hallow, fluid filled ball) forms.
-Day 12: implantation—blastocyst attaches to uterine wall.
-Placenta created when some of the blastocyst cells combine with uterine lining; organ that allows oxygen, nutrients, and other substances to transfer between mom and baby.
embryonic stage of gestation
begins at implantation and continues until the end of week 8;
embryo’s organs form during this time (organogenesis); most susceptible to teratogens at this point.
-Neural tube develops.
-Movements increase as electrical activity in brain becomes more organized.
fetal stage of gestation
begins at end of week 8 and continues until birth.
teratogens
substances that can cause birth defects.
fetal alcohol syndrome
facial deformities, small stature, underdeveloped brain; irritable and hyperactive; number one cause of cognitive impairment in US.
heroin and development
increased prematurity; early mortality; problems with respiration and physical development.
cocaine and development
low birth weight; increased miscarriage rate; high risk of SIDS; sleep and eating difficulties; developmental delays.
nicotine and development
higher risk of still birth; cognitive deficits; emotional difficulties.
lithium and development
increased risk of heart defects (e.g., Ebstein’s anomaly).
lead and development
cognitive impairment; low birth weight.
malnutrition and development
increased risk of mental illness in adulthood; brain stunting—reduced brain weight and volume; decreased synaptic formation.
spina bifida
neural tube defects due to lack of folic acid in diet.
third trimester impacts of malnutrition
low birth weight with intellectual disabilities.
HIV and development
can be passed from mother to fetus; ATZ therapy can reduce risk; if child contracts disease, then can have developmental delays, small birth weight, failure to thrive; weakens immune system.
gestational diabetes and development
high birth weights, jaundice, hypoglycemia, pre-eclampsia, increased likelihood of physical abnormalities; children at risk for diabetes.
rubella and development
exposed in first 4-5 weeks, show some abnormality; deafness; cataracts; heart defects; 20% deaths at birth.
stress and development
high risk of miscarriage and premature birth; hyperactive; feeding and sleep issues.
maternal age and development
-Adolescent: learning and behavior problems.
-Over 35: increased pregnancy risks; greater risk of weighing less than 5.5 lb.; heart malformations; chromosomal disorders.
psychological problems and development
long term and severe depression can lead to slow fetal growth and premature labor.
syphilis and development
most harmful during last 26 weeks; eye, ear, and brain deficits.
some changes that happen to the brain in the prenatal stage
-Nervous system developed out of the ectoderm in the embryonic period.
-Neural tube closes at top and bottom at 24 days (first part of CNS that develops).
-Anencephaly: develops when the tube fails to close at the top, which results in infant death.
-Spina bifida: when the brain stem doesn’t close at the bottom; can lead to paralysis.
-Neurogenesis: starts at week 5 (forming 200k neurons per minute).
-Neuronal migration: begins in week 6 to form different brain structures; neurons are guided by radial fibers of glial cells to the proper neuroanatomical destination.
-Connectivity begins at the 24th week.
brain development and infancy
major tasks are blooming and pruning
-The brain weighs 25% of what it’s going to weigh as an adult; 75% by age 2.
-Increased myelination (axons are sheathed in a protective layer of lipids and proteins;
facilitates neurotransmission); most completed by age 2, but continues into adolescence (PFC).
-Blooming (synaptogenesis): increase of synaptic connections.
-Pruning: unnecessary and pathways and connections creating during blooming are eliminated.
brain development in adolescence
major task is developing executive control.
-Corpus callosum and cerebral cortex thicken; neural pathways become more efficient.
-Emotional centers mature before the executive areas, so the amygdala is done forming but the PFC doesn’t stop until age 25 (can lead to risky behaviors).
-Starting at 17 and continuing into early adulthood, frontal lobe developing more
-increases focus and improves decision making.
older age and development
-Shrinkage: 15% of the volume decreases (dendrite density, grey matter); most change in PFC; slower synaptic speed (increased reaction time).
-Decrease in fluid intelligence; maintenance in crystallized intelligence.
reflexes and motor coordination in infancy
reflexes disappear around 6 months due to development of frontal lobes; reflexes include:
-Palmar grasp: place object in palm and baby grasps it to grasp objects.
-Rooting: touch cheek and baby turns to find nipple.
-Sucking: touch roof of mouth and baby sucks to feed.
-Babinski (plantar): touch foot and baby stretches toes to grasp with feet.
-Moro: elicited by startle response; change in elevation and baby stretches out and cries in order to cling to mother.
month 1 motor skills
gross: stepping reflex, lifts head slightly
fine: holds object if placed in hand
months 2-3 motor skills
gross: lifts head to 90 degree angle when laying on stomach
fine: begins to swipe at objects in sight
months 4-6 in motor skills
gross: rolls over, sits with support, moves on hands and knees (creeps), holds hear up while in sitting position
fine: reaches for and grasps objects
months 7-9 in motor skills
gross: sits without support, crawls
fine: transfers objects from one hand to another
months 10-12 motor skills
gross: pulls self up and walks grasping furniture, then walks alone, squats and stoops, plays pat a cake
fine: shows hand preference, grasps spoon across palm, but poor aim
months 19-24 motor skills
gross: stairs, two feet per step, jumps with both feet
fine: use spoon to feed self, stacks 4-10 blocks
months 13-18 motor skills
gross: walks backwards, sideways runs, rolls ball, claps
fine: stacks two blocks, put objects into small container and dumps them out
old age motor development
after age 70, most adults no longer show knee jerk; and by age 90, most reflexes are really slow.
Gessell’s maturational view of motor development
motor development occurs through an unfolding genetic plan of maturation; purely biological; stepwise development (e.g., sit -> crawl -> walk).
Gibson’s ecological view of motor development
development is driven by a complex interaction between
environmental affordances and the motivated humans who perceive them (e.g., different surfaces afford different opportunities for infants to crawl, walk, grasp).
Dynamic model of motor development
we are influenced by, and in turn, influence our perceptual-motor world; development is non-linear and movement is not developed in a continuous manner or at a steady state (a small but critical change in one sub-system can cause the whole system to shift, resulting in a new motor behavior).
natural selection
gradual process by which biological traits become either more or less
common in a population as a function of the inherited traits on the differential reproductive successes of organisms interacting with the environment.
evolutionary psychology
adaptation, reproduction, and survival of the fittest are what are most important in shaping behavior.
-Mate selection based on preserving and optimizing passing on your own genes.
-Reproductive fitness decreases as you age.
fit in evolutionary psychology
ability to bear offspring that survive long enough to bear their own offspring.
Piaget’s theory
disagreed with “blank slate” ideologies; believed that humans actively interact with their world and that these interactions and interpretations of the world change as people mature; we develop schemas about the world based on our experiences.
according to Piaget, how are the two ways we adapt through the environment
assimilation and accommodation
assimilation (Piaget)
when children use existing schemas to deal with new information (i.e., place new information into existing schema).
accommodation (Piaget)
children’s adjustment of their schemas in the face of new information (i.e., existing schema is modified).
what are the four universal stages that humans move through (Piaget)
1) sensorimotor
2) pre operational
3) concrete operational
4) formal operational
what is the sensorimotor stage (0-2)
first stage of development; infants use information from their senses and motor actions to learn about the world.
object permanence (sensorimotor)
(8-12 mo.): recognize that something exists even when out of sight (leads to separation anxiety and stranger anxiety).
symbolic representation (sensorimotor)
use symbols or words to represent objects.
six substages of sensorimotor
1) simple reflexes
2) first habits and primary circular reactions
3) secondary circular reactions
4) coordination of secondary circular reactions
5) tertiary circular reactions, novelty and curiosity
6) internalization of schemas
simple reflexes stage in sensorimotor
birth to 1 month
coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors, tied to immediate present, respond to available stimuli
rooting, sucking, grasping
first habits and primary circular reactions stage (sensorimotor)
1 to 4 months
Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event that
initially occurred by chance; simple repetitive actions). Main focus is still on the infant’s body. Coordination b/w looking and listening; reaching and looking; reaching and sucking
Repeating a body sensation first experienced by chance, then repeated.
secondary circular reactions (sensorimotor)
4 to 8 months
Infants become more object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results.
Infant coos to make a person stay near; as
the person starts to leave, the infant coos again.
coordination of secondary circular reactions (sensorimotor)
8 to 12 months
Coordination of vision and touch- hand/eye coordination; coordination of schemes and intentionality. Means-end behavior – ability to keep a goal in mind & devise a plan to achieve it.
Infant manipulates a stick in order to bring an attractive toy within reach.
tertiary circular reactions, novelty and curiosity (sensorimotor)
12 to 18 months
Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to objects; they
experiment with new behavior.
A block can be made to fall, spin, hit
another object, and slide across the ground.
internalization of schemas (sensorimotor)
18 to 24 months
Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental
representations.
An infant who has never thrown a
temper tantrum before sees a playmate throw one and then throws one himself.
what is the preoperational stage (2-7, Piaget)
child begins to represent the world with words and images; words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.
symbolization (preoperational)
go beyond sensorimotor and start to symbolize the world with words, images, and drawings.
egocentrism (preoperational)
unable to have empathy or understand others’ viewpoints; looking at things entirely from their point of view (i.e., assuming everyone sees the world like they do).
magical thinking (preoperational)
believe you have control over things you don’t.
irreversibility (preoperational)
unable to realize that an action can be reversed.
