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Families and Households > Demography > Flashcards

Demography Flashcards

1
Q

What is the total fertility rate?

A

1.83 in 2014 compared to 2.95 children in 1964s

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2
Q

What’s the reason for the change in fertility and birth rates?

A
  • More women remaining childless
  • More women postponing having children - avg age is 30
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3
Q

What are 4 reasons for the decline in the birth rate?

A
  1. Changes in womens position
  2. Decline in infant mortality rate
  3. CHildren now economic liability
  4. Child centerdness
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4
Q

Why are changes in womens position one of the reasons for the decline in the birth rate?

A
  • More women in paid employment, easy access to divorce, easy access to contraception/abortion
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5
Q

What does Harper (2012) see as the reason for the decline?

A

Education of women. Change in mindset > fewer children. Now see possibilities outside traditional housewife/mother > delay children
- small families become norm > seen a less deviant/acceptable

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6
Q

What is the infant mortality rate?

A
  • In Uk - 154 compared to 117 in 2024 in Afghanistan.
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7
Q

What are 4 reasons for the fall of infant mortality rate in the 20th century?

A
  1. Improved housing + better santitation, clean drinking water, infants > less infection
  2. Better nutrition
  3. better knowledge of hygiene, child welfare, medicine
  4. Better healthcare system - mass immunisation (whopping cough)
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8
Q

What do Brass and Kabir (1978) argue?

A

The trend to smaller families began not in rural areas where the Imr began to fall but in urban areas where the IMR remained higher for longer

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9
Q

Why were children seen an economic liability in the late 19th century?

A
  • THey could be sent out to work from an early age to earn an income
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10
Q

Why have children started to become an economic liability

A
  1. Laws banning child labour, compulsory schooling - children remain economically dependant on their parents for longer and longer.
  2. Changing norm - children right to expect from parents - material terms
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11
Q

What happens as a result of child centeredness of families?

A
  • Shift from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’ parents now have fewer children & more attention
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12
Q

Why have there been an increase in birth rates since 2001?

A
  1. Increase in immigration. Mothers outside the UK have higher fertility rate - account for 25% of births in 2011.
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13
Q

What are 3 effects of changes in fertility?

A
  1. The family
  2. Dependency ratio
  3. Public services and policies
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14
Q

How does the family affect fertility?

A

-Smaller families > women more free to go to work > create dual-earning couple.
- better off couples able to have larger families and still afford childcare so can work full time

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15
Q

How does the dependency ratio affect fertility?

A
  • Fall in number of children reduces the ‘burden of dependancy’ of working population.
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16
Q

What does Vanishing children mean

A

falling fertility rates > fewer children > childhood lonely > childless adults

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17
Q

Why do lower birth rates have consequences for public services?

A

Fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed. Affects cost of maternity/paternity leave.

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18
Q

What is one effect of women having fewer children?

A

Ageing population. More old compared to young.

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19
Q

Tranter – death rate

A

Death rate has declined so heavily in 19th/20th century due to fall in deaths from infectious diseases
→ Particularly TB
→ HOWEVER these have been replaced by diseases of affluence
- Heart disease, cancer
- Affect the old, rather than the young

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20
Q

Reasons for decline in death from infection

A

→ Improved nutrition
→ Medical advancements
→ Reduction in smoking?
→ Public health measure
→ Other social changes

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21
Q

McKeown – DR/nutrition

A

Nutritional accounts for half the reduction in deaths from infectious disease
→ Increased resistance for those infected
→ But, how come women live longer even though they tend to get smaller shares of the food supply?

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22
Q

Medical advancements – DR

A

→ Antibiotics/immunisation
→ NHS gives care to people
→ Bypass surgeries + medication for heart disease

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23
Q

Reduction in smoking – DR

A

→ May be counteracted by rise in obesity
- Deaths from this kept low due to medication
- Rise of American health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy, but long lifespan is achieved via medication

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24
Q

Harper – DR/smoking

A

Greatest fall in death comes from reduction in smoking

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25
Q

Public health measures – DR

A

Help to improve quality of the environment
→ Clean Air Act
→ Improved housing quality
→ Pasteurised milk

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26
Q

Other social changes – DR

A

→ Decline of dangerous manual occupations e.g. mining
→ Smaller families reduce transmission rates
→ Greater public knowledge of causes of infection
→ Lifestyle changes; reduction in smoking
→ Higher incomes; healthier, higher qual. lifestyle

27
Q

Life expectancy

A

→ Increase of 2 years per decade for last 2 centuries
→ Previously very low due to IMR

28
Q

Harper – life expectancy

A

We will soon achieve radical longevity if lif expectancy continues to increase
→ Predicted to be 1mil centarians by 2100

29
Q

Class, gender and regional differences – life expectancy

A

→ Women generally live longer than men
- Gap is narrowing due to lifestyle changes
→ Those in the North/Scotland have lower life expectancy than those in the South
→ W/c men in unskilled jobs 3x as likely to die before 65 as men in professional jobs
→ Walker; those in poor areas of England die 7 years earlier than those in the richest

30
Q

Ageing population

A

→ Average age of population is rising
→ 2014; 65+ equal to u15s
→ Caused by rising life expectancy + decline in IMR/TFR

31
Q

Effects of ageing population

A

→ Public services
→ One-person households
→ Dependency ratios

32
Q

Public services – ageing population

A

Elderly people consume larger proportion of public services
→ Possible changes in policy/provision of housing/transport/other services
→ BUT many remain in good health

33
Q

One-person households – ageing population

A

→ Lots of pensioners in this family type
→ Feminisation of later life; most are women, as usually outlive their husbands

34
Q

Dependency ratio – ageing population

A

Retired elderly are economically dependent and provided for via taxation
→ Dependency ratio increases as people retired
→ Pension withdrawal age rising due to this
→ Increase in number of old people is offset by declining number of kids
- Will have long-term negative effect

35
Q

Ageism – ageing population

A
  • Negative stereotyping/treatment of people based on their age

→ Rising due to ageing pop. - especially due to cost of pensions/healthcare for the old

36
Q

Modern soceity and old age

A
  • Say ageism comes from structured dependency
    → Old people excluded from paid work, so dependent on family/state

→ Identity/status in modern society is based on your role in production, which old people are excluded from

→ Made powerless, as excluded from labour force, which is important in role allocation

37
Q

Phillipson – ageism

A

Old people are of no use to capitalism; no longer productive

→ State is unwilling to support them, so family must take on their care

38
Q

Postmodern society and old age

A

→ Trends have blurred boundaries between life stages
- Individuals have greater choice, regardless of age
- Early retirement, kids dressing like adults

→ Elderly can shape their identities via ==rejuvenation services ==e.g. Botox
- Can write their own identities as we focus on surface features

→ Breaks down ageist stereotypes
→ Centrality of the media means positive aspects of elderly life can be portrayed

39
Q

Pilcher – inequality among the old

A

Inequalities of class/gender are still important after stages of the life course are broken down
→ M/c have better pensions/savings to live a better life/maintain self-identity
→ Women also suffer from this; lower pay, career breaks, + sexist stereotyping of them as ‘old hags’ vs men as ‘dilfs’

40
Q

Evaluation of postmodern explanation of ageing

A

Understates the importance of inequality

41
Q

Hirsch – policy implications of ageing

A

Lots of important social policies must change to tackle issues caused by the ageing population
→ How do we finance longer periods of old age?; working for longer, or paying more taxes while working?
→ Housing policies so old people can trade down into smaller housing

Frees up housing for young people
→ Need cultural changes in attitudes towards old age

42
Q

Migration and demographics

A

Migration affects the size/age of the population
→ Immigration = movement into society
→ Emigration = movement out
→ Net migration = difference between im/em

Until 1980s, more emigrants than immigrants

43
Q

Immigration and demographics

A

→ Results in ethnically diverse society
→ Immigration acts in 60s-90s restricted non-white immigration

White EU countries are main source of UK immigration

44
Q

Emigration and demographics

A

→ UK used to be a net exporter of people (more em. than imm.)
- Mostly to US/CAN/AUS/NZ/SA

→

→ Contracts with immigrant reasons - many people immigrated to UK due to persecution

45
Q

Impact of migration on population size

A

→ Increase due to immigration
→ Natural increase in births; non-UK mothers account for 25% of all births
- still below replacement level of 2.1 per woman
→ If not for net migration, population would be shrinking

46
Q

Impact of migration on age structure

A

→ Lowers avg. age of population directly + indirectly
- Direct; immigrants usually younger
- Indirect; young immigrants = more fertile, have kids

47
Q

Impact of migration on dependency ratio

A

→ More likely to be of working age; lowers DR
- Many older migrants will return to home country to retire

→ Produce more children, so increase ratio
- Lowers long term as they join labour force

→ Overall impact of DR is reduced over time

48
Q

United Nations – acceleration of migration

A

International migration is speeding up
→ Increased 33% 2000-2013

49
Q

Differentiation – globalisation

A

→ Different types of migrants; temp workers, spouses, forced migration
- Legal and illegal

→ Globalisation diversifies migrant types; students are a major group
→ Pre-90s most came from former colonies who had a right to settle

50
Q

Cohen – differentiation

A

3 types of migrants

→ Citizens with full rights
→ Denizen; privileged foreign nations e.g. oligarchs
→ Helots; most exploited, found in unskilled work

51
Q

Vertovec – differentiation

A

Globalisation leads to superdiversity
→ Migrants come from more countries
→ More dispersed across UK

52
Q

Feminisation of migration

A

→ More migrants are female now
→ Fitted into patriarchal stereotypes; roles as carers/providers of sexual service
→ Gap of women in the services industry is filled by women from poor countries

53
Q

Ehrenreich & Hochschild – feminisation of migration

A

Care/domestic/sex work is increasingly done by women from poor countries because…
→ Western women/men unwilling to do domestic labour
- Western women joining labour force

54
Q

Shutes – feminisation of migration

A

40% of adult care nurses in UK are migrants, mostly female

55
Q

Global transfer of womens emotional labour – feminisation of migration

A

→ Nannies provide care to employers’ children
→ At expense of their own children from their home country

56
Q

Mail order brides – feminisation of migration

A

→ Women entering western countries to marry
→ Reflects gender/racial stereotypes

57
Q

Migrant identities

A

→ Sources of identities come from many places
→ Country of origin often provides additional identity
→ Hybrid identities; 2+ sources of ID
→ Transnational identities; not belonging to just one place

58
Q

Eade – hybrid identities

A

Bangladeshi Muslims had hierarchical hybrid identities
→ Muslim, then Bengali, then British
→ May find others challenge their identity

59
Q

Eriksen – transnational identities

A

Globalisation has created diverse migration patterns

→ Back-and-forth movements, rather than permanent settlement
→ Can sustain global ties without travelGlobalisation has created diverse migration patterns

60
Q

Eriksen – links to other migrants

A

People may have links to migrants globally, more than just their country of origin or settlement

→ Chinese migrants in Rome had connections with other Chinese worldwide
→ Makes immigrants less likely to desire assimilation into host culture

61
Q

Politicisation of migration

A

→ States have immigration control policies
- Linked to anti-terrorism policies

→ Assimilation was first state policy approach
- Encouraging immigrants to adopt language/values of host culture
- Transnational migrants may not want to view themselves as belonging to just one nation

→ Multiculturalism; accepts migrants want to retain a separate identity, but often limited to superficial diversity
- Move to this since 60s, apprehensive to do so since 9/11

62
Q

Evaluation of politicisation of migration

A

→ Assimilation policies could encourage workers to blame migrants for social issues eg unemployment

→ Multicultural ed policies only celebrate shallow diversity; fail to address deeper issues of racism

63
Q

Castles – assimilation

A

Assimilation policies are counterproductive

→ Mark out minorities as culturally ‘other’

64
Q

Eriksen – multiculturalism

A

Shallow diversity is acceptable to the state

→ e.g. chicken tikka masala as UK national dish
→ Ignore deep diversity e.g. arranged marriages and veiling

Families and Households (8 decks)

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