Death Flashcards
Aspects of the dead Egyptian
- The akh - the spirit which reflect the deeds of the person in life - can interact with this world
- The ka - created at the same time as the person themselves, a kind of double or twin which survives death and gets sustenance between the world - magic formula and offerings directed to this
- The ba - human headed bird - form of the spirit that could interact with the physical world
- The shadow - role unclear and is part of the spirit
- The body - must be preserved to reach the afterlife - earthbound conduit
- The name - as long as name survives on earth, they cannot be completely obliterated
ḥtp-dỉ-nsw formula
- Magically produces food and drink
- End ‘for the ka of X’
- Sometimes around false doors
- False doors are public part of the tomb where the two worlds come together and offerings can be placed
Egyptian ‘Book of Coming Forth by Day’ (AKA ‘Book of the Dead’)
- 16th C BC onwards, second intermediate period
- Guidebook to being dead
- Takes one through the process - riddles to be answered at various gateways from death to the judgement hall
- In judgement hall, heart (intelligence and memory) is weighed against a feather by Maat, goddess of justice and truth, and the result is recorded by Thoth
- Presented to Osiris who lets them into the afterlife
- If it is not lighter, Ammit will eat your heart and the spirit will be left to wander the earth
- If it is written down, it has happened so everyone who depicts this goes through
- Heart scarabs used to keep guilt hidden
- Book of the Dead - shows field of Iaru - where commoners end up -bigger and better Egypt with better crops etc.
- Dead person lives on their existing life, just better
Pyramid Texts
23rd/22nd C BC
- Old Kingdom
- Only for kings at this place
- To aid in guiding the spirit to the next world
- Predates book of dead
Coffin Texts
21st/17th C BC
- Middle Kingdom
- Parts are incorporated into the Book of the Dead
Predynastic burial
- Naqqada culture
- Crouched bodies in the desert sound
- Surrounded by sparse grave goods e.g. pottery - pottery much higher quality here than in later periods
- Natural preservation - desiccation from sun and sand
- May have inspired mummification
Mummification process
- Depends on what people could afford
- Peak in the New Kingdom
- Evisceration - removal of all organs apart from the kidneys and heart
- Brain removed via nostrils
- Dessiccation - body buried in Natron - natural salt
- Natron needs to be changed at least once over the month it is buried in
- Wrapping - Organs are separately dessicated, wrapped and put in canopic jars
- The Catafalque - put in coffins and taken to the tomb in a procession
- Earliest mummies have same pose as predynastic burials but are later fully extended
The Funeral
- Opening the Mouth - funerary ceremony working as a magical reanimation practice
- Body held up and made to eat with various implements, e.g. Weekend at Bernies
Canopic Equipment
- Varies over time
- Start of as simple functional things, then have human heads, then four sons of horus atop each jar - protective deities of the dead
- May be placed in a Canopic chest
- Royalty have much richer canopic jars - solid gold miniature coffins with a stone canopic chest
- Baboon
- Hawk
- Jackal
- Human
Mummies: external treatment
- Stretched out in a position of sleep - lying on side with right leg over the left
- Body on it’s side in the coffin until the Middle Kingdom
- Outer wrapping soaked in plaster so the features of the body can be modelled
- After Middle Kingdom - replaced by a stretched out body with a helmet mask over head and shoulders
- Masks go in and out of fashion
- Bead nets sometimes draped over body, without a mask, with deities depicted in beads
Early Coffins
- Earliest are short and fat, reflecting the crouched position of the mummies
- Many are simple wooden boxes but some have nice rounded lids and paneled exteriors, to represent a chapel or high status building
- Rectangular coffins remain the standard for 1000 years until the Middle kingdom
- Some kings coffins more simple than private ones
- Eye panels designed to allow the deceased to look out - hence lying on left side - sometimes looking at pile of offerings - sometimes a depiction of what he can see on the inside -Eye panels still found on coffins even when body is lying on its back
Sarcophagi
- external rectangular container, not always made of stone
- range from simple to panelled, then elaborately decorated in the New Kingdom - deities, sons of horus, eye panels regardless of position of bodies and extensive texts
- Wooden ones also exist, mostly from 18th dynasty
- New Kingdom Dyn XIX - more elaborate, pictures of the kings body on the lid
Shabtis
- Magical servants of the deceased
- Corvee labour still happening after you die - could be conscripted so need someone to do the work for you in the afterlife
- Initally just one, then eventually one for every day of the year and overseers
- Could be over 400
- Design changes over time - end up as little blue statues
Offering Stelas
- Found in the offering place - depicts person and offerings being made
- Depictions of things that should be bought - assumed real food would be bought but not always the case
- Eventually evolve into offering formulae
Saqqara: Step Pyramid
- First monumental tombs
- Built on top of the burial place itself
- Dynasty III, 2600 BC
- Built for King Djoser by Imhotep
- Combination of the offering place and burial chamber
- First underground gallery to have decoration - after this, not kings burial passages are decorated for a few centuries
Medium Pyramid
- Dashur, 4th Dynasty
- Pyramid of Sneferu, along with the Red and Bent Pyramids
- Step pyramids don’t last long
- Looks strange as it started as a step pyramid, was converted to a pointed pyramid, then partially collapsed
- Gives up on rectangular enclosure approach in favour of a simpler one - from here on pyramids have a small temple on the Western face and a causeway which leads to the edge of the desert - becomes the standard plan for a pyramid
Giza Pyramids
- Great Pyramid - 4th Dynasty, Khufu
- Followed by Pyramid of Khafre and the smaller modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure nearby
Rock Tombs
- Tombs for private individuals in areas where topography doesn’t allow mastabas to be built e.g. at Aswan
- offering places cut out of living rock
- New Kingdom- rock cup chapels with a view, overlooking processional ways
- Decoration of private individuals surrounding food production and activities people want to continue e.g. hunting, cooking etc - associated with food
- Burial chambers typically undecorated
Memorial Temples
- Old and Middle Kingdoms - temple dedicated to the deceased King
- New Kingdoms - main temples are dedicated to the King of the Gods Amun, with the King only a subsidiary - separation of spaces in the temples
- Burial chamber once again moves some distance away from the memorial temple
Valley of the Kings
- Tomb chamber moves way away from the memorial temples - couple of kms away
- In the New Kingdom, moved into the valley of the kings, on the other side of a rock ridge where ‘secret’ tombs were built to avoid tomb robbers
Mesopotamian Underworld:
- From texts - no funerary texts, just references in other texts
• Ruled by goddess Ereshkigal & her husband Nergal
• Inhabited by the etemmu of the dead
• Underground, below the world of the living
• Dark, damp and dreary:
• ‘The place where they live on dust, their food is mud, and they see no light …’. - not desirable like Egyptian afterlife
• Accessed via land infested by demons, crossing the Khubur River, with the aid of its guardian, and then passing though seven gates to reach the netherworld - no equivalent book of the dead to guide them through this
• If proper offerings not made by living, dead might return as malevolent ghosts
Ashur royal cemeteries
- 11th-9th century BC
- Over 1000 years after the Royal Tombs of Ur - not much evidence inbetween
- Royal Tombs of Ur are in the city but in distinct cemeteries - now the Ashur tombs are underneath houses
- Brick structures with vaulted or pointed roofs
- Private individuals buried underneath houses, royalty buried underneath palaces
Mycenae
- Grave circles were initially outside the main walled structure but were later enclosed within the walls
- Main high status cemetery still outside the walls however
Grave Circles
- Oldest tomb = grave circle B - contains shaft graves which are deep shafts with the body placed at the bottom with a roof over it, then filled in - at the bottom were grave markers
- MH III- LHIA 17th-16th c BC
- all burials within known by greek letters - all contain pottery from MH IIIB, some stelas and Electrum (gold and silver) alloy death masks (LH), lots of gold work
- Grave Circle A is later but was discovered earlier by Schliemann - LHI - 17th BC where he found ‘Agamemnon’ but date wrong for this
- Thought this due to gold mask - clearly v important people - large shaft graves with elaborate grave goods inc silver and gold rhyton (to pour wine) in the shape of a bulls head, stela of a chariot fight
Chamber Tombs
- Shaft tombs replaced as standard high status tomb with Chamber tombs and Tholos
- Entrance passage way and chamber cut out of the rock
- Tholos is free standing equivalent - entrance passage then beehive shaped chamber for burial
- Both tomb types seem to have been used on a generational basis - reopened and reused by descendants
- Chamber tombs ubiquitos around greece, not just Mycenae
- Tholoi at Mycenae include Tomb of Atreus and Tomb of Clytemnestra, both 13th c BC - given names of Homeric heroes even though they definitely weren’t
- Triangular arch above the doorway typical
Cretan Tombs
- Tholoi also found in Crete e.g. at Phourni, 14th c BC
- Some pillar crypt to one side of the Tholos - not sure what the meaning of these is but thought to be funerary, as well as in living cult centres e.g palaces
- Some other types of tombs found but their exact context remains unclear
Cremation and Inhumation
- Cremation more common in Iron Age when Greece emerges from the Dark Ages - inhumation standard around the near east before this
- Cremation changes whole nature of burials - just a jar now
- Athens, 9th c BC
The Homeric funeral
No written records before classical times but we have evidence during this, particularly from Homer - we assume this is what was happening at his time but we can’t be sure
1. Prothesis: laying out body
2. Ekphora: conveyance to place of interment (began before dawn on 3rd
day)
3. Kedia: deposition of cremated or inhumed remains
4. Perideipnon: ceremonial feast, conceptually hosted by the dead person
- Range of grave goods - statues (kuoros and kore), pots, etc
Attica
- Area around athens
-Switching between whether Cremation of Inhumation is the standard
11th-10th C: single inhumation
9th-8th C: cremation
later 8th C: inhumation (contemporary with establishment of polis)
7th C: primary cremation
6th C: inhumation early
5th C: stone stelae banned
-Solon’s reforms in early 6th C included that lamentation in the home and in public should be restrained, dignified and restricted to the close relatives of deceased
Book of Amuduat
- 15th century BC onwards
- Kings don’t need to go through the same judgement process that commoners do - don’t need to go live in the next world
- Kings join with the other gods instead
- Reflected that in the royal tombs of New Kingdom onwards, wall depictions are to do with the journey of the Sun god through the underworld (ram headed Re)
- Idea = King is fused with sun god, takes part in his death at sunset and his Resurrection at sun rise
Later Coffins
-Anthropoid mummy case comes in Middle Kingdom, around 2000 BC onwards - essentially outer depictions of wrapped mummys with mask and shroud
-Later, rectangular coffin goes out of use and anthropoid coffin becomes an independent container
-Rishi (feathered) coffin - body depicted as a ba bird
-White coffins - New Kingdom - reversion to depicting a wrapped mummy
-Black coffins - design stays the same but colour changes to black in middle of 18th dynasty - black colour of dead deities skin, death and resurrection
Kings keep rishi coffins around 600 years after private individuals has stopped using it
-Stone anthropoid coffins used for high status private individuals
-Yellow coffins - late 14th c to 9th c BC but details change over same- decoration gets more and more elaborate
- 13th century - idea of depicting mummy goes out the window briefly and coffins depict person in everyday, living clothes - good for dating
-9th century - complete change in design, with kings in particular losing feathers but it being replaced by a hawks head
Models
- 12th dynasty - common to have models of food production activities place in the burial chamber e.g. granaries
Abydos
- Earliest royal tombs
- Simple cuttings in the desert gravel, lined with mud brick, with a wooden roof and a mound of sand or gravel on top of them
- Small graves around the kings graves are sacrificed servants - Early Dynastic Period 3000-2700 BC - workers died at the same time as the king
- Future tombs had great rectangular enclosures built where funerals were carried out, before the body was moved a few km away
Private tombs
- Initially similar to royal tombs - mud lined graves cut in the desert, simple but sometimes with more elaborate paneled mud brick superstructures
- Also surrounded by graves of their servants but no evidence they died with owner like king
- Offering place in left hand niches, where living could come and place offerings
Pyramids
- Earliest are the best built - get smaller and poorer after Sneferu - however mortuary temples get bigger
- 1900 - pyramids start being built of stone rather than brick
- Small pyramids around it built for Queens
- Last pyramids have complex internal arrangements with hidden passageways to dissuade tomb robbers
- Burial chambers generally undecorated in private and royal tombs until the offering stela becomes more standardised and turns into a false door
- New Kingdom - pyramids abolished for kings and are introduced for the first time for private individuals
Mastaba tombs
- Old and Middle Kingdoms - Private individuals are under bench shaped mud brick Mastaba tombs
- Some free standing tombs built with little pyramids on top
Royal Tombs of Ur
- Early burials in distinct cemeteries, then later within settlements and underneath houses and palaces, such as at Ur, where royal cemeteries are under the main temple
- Monumental sub structure, but no monumental superstructure
- Built structures in pits in the ground
- Most famous example PG/789 is the so called ‘Death Pit of Ur’ - huge amount of material - lots of aurochs and servants, all killed/sacrified themselves at the same time within the pit, in situ and it is then filled in
Queen Puabi
- One of the Royal Tombs of Ur
- Elaborately dressed, buried with a gold crown
Nimrud
- Burials of Queens in Northwest Palace, underneath courtyards
- Coffins, jewellery
Persia
- Royal tombs, particularly in Pasagardae and Persepolis
- includes Tomb of Cyrus (559-529 BC) founder of Persian Empire - Tomb is a podium with a pointed roof tomb chamber on top at Pasagardae
- More typical tomb is one such as the Tomb of Darius I(522-486 BC), a tomb cut into a vertical rock face with a facade and a stereotype of the king and various subject races
- Chamber inside with a series of body cuttings
Cist Graves
-Cutting lined with stone with a roof of stone and the body is placed within
Pithos Grave
- Bodies buried in large pots - particularly with child burials, but also very large pots in which adults (“humans”) are buried