Day 20: Transfer, Problem Solving Flashcards
1
Q
Gick & Holyoak tried 3 ways to induce transfer
A
- Subjects were told to summarize story in abstract terms
- A general principle was provided
- “If you need a large force to accomplish some purpose, but are prevented from applying such a force directly, many smaller forces applied simultaneously from different directions may work just as well”
- Create a diagram
2
Q
What worked?
A
- All 3 ways (summary, general principle, and diagram alone) failed to facilitate transfer
- Subjects were given the two stories and told to write down the basis for the similarity in the story
- This worked!
- It’s known as analogical problem solving
3
Q
Gick & Holyoak’s Conclusions
A
Gick and Holyoak concluded that analogical problem solving depends on three steps:
- Noticing that an analogical connection exists between the source and the target problem
- Mapping corresponding parts of the 2 problems onto each other (fortress= tumor, army= ray)
- Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem (using small groups of soldiers from different directions= sending several weaker rays from different directions)
4
Q
Transfer
A
- Transfer: When we apply knowledge or skills
- In new ways
- In new situations
- In familiar situations with different content
5
Q
Contemporary Perspective
A
- Transfer is a specific process, not a general one
- Learning occurring at one time can facilitate learning at another time if, in the process, the individual learns how to learn
- Learning processes may not be the only thing to transfer
- Emotions and motivation may transfer too (Ex. Little Albert, PTSD)
6
Q
Transfer from various theoretical perspectives
A
- Behaviorism: Generalization (i.e., responding in same way to different stimuli because of similarity)
- Information Processing: Encoding information in a way that information or skills can be recalled in appropriate contexts
- Social Cognitive Theory: Latent learning; certain actions will lead to favorable outcomes in other contexts
- Situated Cognition: Transfer is unlikely to occur from one context to another context
7
Q
What facilitates transfer?
A
- Meaningful learning vs. rote learning
- Thoroughness of learning process (less is more)
- Similarity of situation/context/problem type
- Practice!
- Brief time interval between original and transfer task
- Setting up a classroom culture that expects transfer
8
Q
Types of Transfer
A
- Vertical vs. Lateral
- Negative vs. Positive
- Near vs. Far
- Low Road vs. High Road
9
Q
Vertical Transfer
A
- Knowledge of previous topic is essential to acquire new knowledge
- Ex: To understand multiplication, one needs to understand addition
10
Q
Lateral (or Horizontal) Transfer
A
- Knowledge of previous topic may be helpful- but is not essential- to learn a new topic
- Ex: Knowledge of physics may be helpful for understanding geology
11
Q
Vertical vs. Lateral Transfer: Examples
A
- V: Learning to multiply -> learning to raise numbers to a power (squaring, cubing, etc.)
- L: Learning psychology -> Learning sociology
- V: Learning to sew -> Learning to embroider
- V: Learning how to use a jack -> Learning to change a tire
12
Q
Positive Transfer
A
- What is learned in one context enhances learning in a different setting
- Ex: Knowledge of how to create a PowerPoint will help you to make a Prezi
13
Q
Negative Transfer
A
- What’s learned in one context interferes with learning in another; elements incorrectly identified as being similar
- Ex: Mac vs. PC keyboard shortcuts; using a different computer operating system
14
Q
Positive vs. Negative Transfer
A
- Learning one Romantic language -> Learning a second Romantic language
- Learning to drive a manual car -> Learning to drive an automatic car
15
Q
Near Transfer
A
- Old and new contexts are similar; overlap between situations
- Ex: A restaurant where you order at a counter and another where you order at a table
16
Q
Far Transfer
A
- Old and new contexts are not similar; little overlap between situations
- Ex: A teacher using skills developed in running a classroom to running a business
- Usually requires analysis, deep thinking and seeing similarities that are not always apparent (ex. analogical problem solving)
17
Q
Near vs. Far Transfer Examples
A
- N: Practice test -> Real test
- F: Statistics Test -> Using software to analyze data for research
- N: Driving a Ford pickup truck -> Driving a Chevy pickup truck
- F: Driving a speedboat -> Sailing a sailboat
- F: Typing on a typewriter -> Typing up Braille
- N: Typing on a typewriter -> Typing on a computer
18
Q
Low Road Transfer
A
- Transfer of well-established skills happens in an automatic or nearly automatic fashion
- Ex: Taking a multiple choice exam in multiple contexts and domains
19
Q
High Road Transfer
A
- Purposeful and effortful formulations of ideas about relations and connections among contexts
- Ex: Using knowledge of chess strategy to become an effective politician
20
Q
Near/Far vs. Low-Road/High-Road
A
- Near vs. Far: Primarily focus on the degree of similarity between the original task an transfer task, as well as contexts
- Low-Road vs. High-Road: Refer to mechanisms of transfer (i.e., how a person approaches the situations: Is it more automatic? Or is there a conscious search for connections?)
21
Q
Well-Defined vs. Ill-Defined
A
- Well-defined problems
- Clear goals
- Only one correct solution
- Structured procedures for reaching a solution
- All information is specified
- Ex: How to get a car to mechanic after an accident/ How to earn enough money for down-payment on house/ Chess
- Ill-defined problems
- Ambiguous goals
- More than one solution
- No generally agree-upon strategy for reaching a solution
- One or more features of the problem are not specified or are ambiguous
- Ex: Writing poetry/ Cleaning your apartment (could be well defined if limits set)/ Learning to play guitar
22
Q
3 Parts of a Problem
A
- Goal: Desired end state
- Givens: What you are told at the beginning; your starting state
- Operations: Actions that you can perform to reach the goal, including the rules of the game and how to get from one state to another
23
Q
Well-Structured Problem-Solving Process
A
- Identify the problem goal
- Represent the problem
- Select a strategy
- Implement the strategy
- Evaluate the results
24
Q
Represent the Problem
A
- Stating in more familiar terms
- Relating to previously experiences problems
- Represent visually
25
Q
Select a strategy, and Implement
A
- Trial and error
- Insight
- Heuristics vs. Algorithms
- Brainstorming
- Means-End Analysis
- Working Backward
- Drawing Analogies
26
Q
Trial and Error
A
- Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
- Trial and error is something we use
- Not effective or reliable
27
Q
Insight
A
- A sudden awareness of a likely solution
- An Aha! moment
- Research has found 4 steps for insight to occur:
- Preparation (time to learn and gather information)
- Incubation (time to think)
- Inspiration (Eureka!)
- Verification (time to test)
28
Q
Silveira (1971): The cheap necklace problem
A
- “You are given four separate pieces of chain that are each 3 link in length
- It costs 2 cents to open a link and 3 cents to close a link
- All links are closed at the beginning of the problem
- Your goal is to join all 12 links of chain into a single circle at a cost of no more than 15 cents
- Control group: Worked on the problem for half an hour
- Experimental group 1: Worked for half an hour, interrupted by a half-hour break in which other activities were performed
- Experimental group 2: As 1, but with a 4 hour break
29
Q
Heuristics and Algorithms
A
- A heuristic is a mental shortcut
- General method for solving problems that uses rules of thumb, which usually lead to a solution
- Informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that sometimes work
- An algorithm is a sequence of operations that when repeated over and over again guarantees success
- Methodical, but often slow
- If you get stuck or forget a step, you can’t move on
30
Q
Other methods
A
- Brainstorming: Generating large number of possible approaches without regard to practicality then evaluate for usefulness
- Means-end Analysis: Break problem down into 2+ sub-problems to solve
- Working Backward: Start at problem goal and work in reverse toward initial problem state
- Analogies: Drawing an analogy between the current problem and another previously solved problem can provide insight (Fortress/Tumor)
31
Q
Evaluate the Results
A
- “Stop and think about it” step
- Check for evidence that confirms or contradicts your solution
32
Q
Problem-Solving Paradox
A
- School tends to teach well-defined problems
- In real life, we face problems related to money, careers, social relationships, and happiness that are ill-defined
33
Q
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) (Cindy Hmelo-Silver)
A
Active approach to learning in which learners collaborate in understanding and solving complex, ill-structured problems
34
Q
PBL Example
A
- Mr. Ho was a 60 year old machine operator in a garment factory who had enjoyed good health previously.
- He has married and had a son and a 4 year old grandson.
- The family had lived for 15 years on the 4th floor of a public housing estate with no elevators
- Mr. Ho visited his family physician and complained of discomfort in both knees, worse on the right side
- Each morning, he had to walk to the bus stop to get to work
- In the past few months, he had found this increasingly difficult, particularly when he was walking down the stairs
- Additionally, he was not spending as much time playing with his grandson as he used to
35
Q
In Summary
A
- Transfer is one of the most hotly debated, yet important, issues in education
- Does it happen? How? Under what circumstances? How can we facilitate it?
- Problem solving is a complex process, but it is the foundation of learning and functioning in the world
- Ill structured vs. well structured
- In real world problems, there are well structured pieces to ill structured problems
- Problem solving is a very specific form of transfer - It’s goal-directed, with a specific end in mind
