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Cross-cultural Marketing > D - Cultural Theories - Part 1 > Flashcards

D - Cultural Theories - Part 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Different Meanings of the Term “Culture”

Culture as used in “Corporate Culture” or “Country Culture”

A

Culture

= characteristic value system

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2
Q

Different Meanings of the Term “Culture”

Culture as used in “High Culture” or Sub culture

A

Culture
= sum of intellectual and artistic expressions of a nation

Precondition: Abundance of food (e.g. corn-high cultured of the Inkas)

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3
Q

Simple Layer Models of culture

Culture Onion

Layers

A
  • Fundamental assumptions about human nature
  • Norms/Values
  • Rituals
  • Heroes
  • Symbols

Rituals, Heroes and Symbols result in (visible) practices

-> e.g. meeting culture -> length and nature of introduction phase

! metaphoric pre-scientific !

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4
Q

Concepta-Percepta-Approach

Iceberg-Model

A

Culture consists of Percepta and Concepta

Dazu zählen sowohl deskriptive (= Percepta) als auch explikative Kulturelemente (= Concepta, vgl. Osgood 1951). Erstere umfassen beobachtbare Verhaltensweisen (z.B. Rituale wie Begrüßungen) und Verhaltensergebnisse (z.B. Architektur). Concepta hingegen steht für nicht-beobachtbare Verhaltensursachen wie Werte, Normen und Einstellungen.

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5
Q

Concepta-Percepta-Approach

Iceberg-Model

Percepta

A

Behavior (Social culture)

  • Rituals
  • Ceremonies
  • Customs
  • social structure
  • -> Behavioral results (Material culture)
  • Architecture
  • Clothes
  • Art and Decoration
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6
Q

Concepta-Percepta-Approach

Iceberg-Model

Concepta

A

Reason for behavior (mental culture)

  • Taboos
  • Norms
  • Values
  • Attitudes

(from bottom to top: increasing relevance for behavior)
(from top to bottom: number)

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7
Q

Diverging cultural standards

Culture Standard

A

Behavior patterns, which are perceived as normal or binding for the majority of the members of a culture.

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8
Q

Diverging cultural standards

Example: culture standards in the US and China

US

A

escape from absolutistic emperors

  • individualism
  • equal opportunities
  • achievement orientation
  • patriotism

virtues of the settlers

  • activity orientation
  • future orientation
  • domination of nature
  • mobility
  • interpersonal accessibility
  • composure
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9
Q

Diverging cultural standards

Example: culture standards in the US and China

China

A

Confucianism

  • hierarchical orientation
  • friendship and politeness
  • modesty and self-control
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10
Q

Diverging cultural standards

Example: culture standards in the US and China

Social Smile

A

(in some Asian cultures)

= culture standard aiming at “hiding” feelings that are not desired to be expressed in order not to burdening others

-> sympathy, happiness, anger, sadness, embarrassment, confusion

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11
Q

Definition of culture

Synopsis (Keller 1982)

A

-> catalog of features identified through a content-analytical evaluation of the present definitions

Culture
= artifact
= collective phenomenon (not individual)
= learned (therefore our social heritage)
= characteristic symbolic system of signs
= behavioral control (values, norms, taboos)
= reciprocal adaption of the members of one culture
= gradual adaption (= cultural evolution)
= “quick” adaption (=cultural change)

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12
Q

Definition of Culture

Working definition of Müller/Gelbrich

A

Shared pool of knowledge that a group of people that a group of people shares and that distinguishes them from members of other cultures. Behavior-patterns, artifacts and patterns of perception as well as the handling and interpretation of emotions can also be culture-specific. The culture thus understood influences the behavior of individuals and provides a society with a common social reality, identity and cohesion.

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13
Q

Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck

Basic concept

A
  • culture-anthropologist understanding of culture: static, constant
  • all cultures have to solve the same problems (value orientation)
  • cultures differ in the way they solve these problems (variation)
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14
Q

Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck

Defintion: culture

A

Culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and specially their attached values.
(…) learned by people as the results of belonging to a particular group, and is that part of learned behavior that os shared by others.

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15
Q

Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture

Overview of orientations

A 
Human nature
Man-nature
Time
Activity
Relational
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16
Q

Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture

Orientation

Human nature

A
  • evil (changeable/unchangeable)
  • neutral (changeable)/mix of both (unchangeable)
  • good (changeable/unchangeable)

Are human beings good or bad or both?
-> Societies based on trust or mistrust

Is this changeable or not?
-> Humanistic societies, India

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17
Q

Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture

Orientation

Man-nature relationship

A

subjugation to nature
-> Inkas, Aztecs

harmony with nature
-> Indian tribes, Buddhism

mastery over nature
-> Industrialism

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18
Q

Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture

Orientation

Time

A

Past

  • > conservative societies
  • > e.g. Victorian England

Present

  • > consumer societies
  • > e.g. US

Future

  • > sustainable societies
  • > e.g. Sweden, Norway
19
Q

Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture

Orientation

Activity Orientation

A

being

  • > status societies
  • > e.g. Roman Empire

being in becoming

  • > meritocracy
  • > e.g. US (“getting things done”)

doing

  • > also meritocracy
  • > e.g. US (“Land of unlimited opportunity”)
20
Q

Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture

Orientation

Relational orientation

A

Linear

  • > group is in the focus (= collectivism), but one person stands out
  • > Chinese emperor in a collectivistic China

Collateral

  • > group is in focus (= collectivism), nobody stands out
  • > communism

Individualistic

  • > individual is in the focus (= individualism)
  • > e.g. US
21
Q

Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck

Acknowledgement

Pro and contra

A

Pro:

  • basis for nearly all culture concepts
  • does not put culture and country on one level (-> Rimrocks)

Contra:

  • Empirical evaluation only for Rimrocks
  • > external validity?
22
Q

Anthropologic/communication Approach of Hall/Hall

Basic Idea

A
  • cultures are different with regard to their directness
  • > manifested in personal contact, physical distance, language
  • context of the communication is emphasized to a greater or lesser extent
  • communications-science perspective (e.g. speaking, writing, pointing)
23
Q

Anthropologic/communication Approach of Hall/Hall

Dimensions

A

Context (most important)
Information
Space
Time

24
Q

Anthropologic/communication Approach of Hall/Hall

When would you call somebody a good communicator?

A

In some cultures confrontational is good, in some cultures they avoid confrontation
-> Asians are not confrontational, Germany is very confrontational, USA/Australia is in the middle

25
Q

High- vs. low-context cultures

A

High-context-cultures
- implicit, unspoken, “included” information

Low-context-cultures
- explicit, spoken, “clarified” information

26
Q

High- vs. low-context-cultures

High-context-cultures

Overtness (obviousness) of messages:
Use of non-verbal communication: 
Cohesion and separation of groups: 
Level of commitment to relationships: 
Appointments and contracts:
Examples:
A

Overtness (obviousness) of messages:
- many covert and implicit messages, with use of metaphor and reading between the lines

Use of non-verbal communication:
- much nonverbal communication

Cohesion and separation of groups:
- strong distinction between in-group and outgroup, strong sense of family

Level of commitment to relationships:
- high commitment to relationships, relationship more important than task

Appointments and contracts:
- mainly verbal

Examples:
- France, Spain, Italy, Middle East, Japan, Russia

27
Q

High- vs. low-context-cultures

Low-context-cultures

Overtness (obviousness) of messages:
Use of non-verbal communication: 
Cohesion and separation of groups: 
Level of commitment to relationships: 
Appointments and contracts:
Examples:
A

Overtness (obviousness) of messages:
- many overt and explicit messages that are simple and clear

Use of non-verbal communication:
- more focus on verbal communication than body language

Cohesion and separation of groups:
- flexible and open group patterns, changing as needed

Level of commitment to relationships:
- low commitment to relationships, tasks more important than relationships

Appointments and contracts:
- written down

Examples:
- Germany, Switzerland, US, Scandinavia

28
Q

Ways how Information is treated

Slow Flow of Information

A
  • plan information carefully and structure it
  • tend to portion (divide) information, not to give more than absolutely necessary

Examples of slow messages:
- Poetry, Books, Act, Etching, TV documentary, print, deep relations

29
Q

Ways how information is treated

Fast flow of information

A
  • think that the more quickly the information is spread, the better it is for all

Examples of fast messages:
- Prose, headlines, Propaganda, cartoons, TV commercials, Television, Social Media

30
Q

Space

Social Distance

A
  • distance between people when communicating
  • different perceptions of spatial closeness
  • partially related to the context dimension
  • > low-context-cultures: bigger “private zone”
31
Q

Time

Time Orientation

A

Supplement to Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck:
Not only the importance of past, present and future is different, also time perception:

monochronic:
- linear, successive, steady nature -> processes

polychronic:
- cyclic, volatile, dynamic

32
Q

Time Orientation

Monochronic action

Actions:
Focus: 
Attention to time:
Priority:
Timeliness:
Examples:
A

Actions:
- Do one thing at a time

Focus:
- Concentrate on the job at hand

Attention to time:
- Think about when things must be achieved

Priority:
- Put the job first

Timeliness:
- Emphasize promptness (quick = agility)

Examples:
- Germany, USA, Scandinavian countries

33
Q

Time orientation

Polychronic action

Actions:
Focus: 
Attention to time:
Priority:
Timeliness:
Examples:
A

Actions:
- Do many things at once

Focus:
- are easily distracted

Attention to time:
- think about what will be achieved

Priority:
- put relationships first

Timeliness:
- base promptness relationship factors

Examples:
- Latin America, Middle East, Russia

34
Q

Time Orientation

Consequences for Cross-Cultural Marketing

Time Saving

Example: McDonald’s

A

Polychronic time:
Time prosperity -> USP: easy food
e.g. Brazil, Costa Rica etc.

Monochronic time:
Time greed -> USP: fast food
e.g. US, Germany etc.

35
Q

Time Orientation

Consequences for Cross-Cultural Marketing

Time Sovereignity

A
  • home shopping/home banding -> Online-/mobile marketing
  • express cleaning / express service
  • shop opening hours / 24hrs services
36
Q

Time orientation

Consequences for Cross-cultural Marketing

Waiting Time

Monochrone time-structure

A

Waiting time

  • > time lost
  • > overestimated
  • > disproportionality impaired customer satisfaction
  • Television in the waiting area

Example: Airline passengers - long waiting times at baggage claim
-> Solution: Prolong the path through pass control

-> In monochronistic structures waiting leads to dissatisfaction

37
Q

Time orientation

Consequences for Cross-cultural Marketing

Waiting Time

Polychrone time-structure

A

Waiting time

  • > time used in another way
  • > underestimated
  • > adding additional offers in waiting area
38
Q

Time

Time-perception as Three-dimensional Construct

A

Time structure:
- monochronic vs. polychronic

Course of time:
- cyclic vs. linear

Concept of time:
- abstract vs. concrete

39
Q

Time

Time-perception as Three-dimensional Construct

linear, abstract, monochronic

A

industrialised countries, monotheistic religions

40
Q

Time

Time-perception as Three-dimensional Construct

cyclic, concrete, polychronic

A

archaic societies, polytheistic religions

41
Q

Time

Course of time

Industrial societies, monotheistic religions

A
  • Linear course of time
  • Voluntaristic concept of the world

Starts at one point ends at another point

Genesis -> last judgement

42
Q

Time

Course of time

Archaic societies, polytheistic religions

A
  • Cyclic course of time
  • Deterministic concept of the world

Time base: nature

43
Q

Time

Kinds of time orientation

A

past-oriented:
- past > present and future

Present-oriented:
- present > past and future

Future-oriented:
- future > past and present

Cross-cultural Marketing (11 decks)

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