D - Cultural Theories - Part 1 Flashcards
Different Meanings of the Term “Culture”
Culture as used in “Corporate Culture” or “Country Culture”
Culture
= characteristic value system
Different Meanings of the Term “Culture”
Culture as used in “High Culture” or Sub culture
Culture
= sum of intellectual and artistic expressions of a nation
Precondition: Abundance of food (e.g. corn-high cultured of the Inkas)
Simple Layer Models of culture
Culture Onion
Layers
- Fundamental assumptions about human nature
- Norms/Values
- Rituals
- Heroes
- Symbols
Rituals, Heroes and Symbols result in (visible) practices
-> e.g. meeting culture -> length and nature of introduction phase
! metaphoric pre-scientific !
Concepta-Percepta-Approach
Iceberg-Model
Culture consists of Percepta and Concepta
Dazu zählen sowohl deskriptive (= Percepta) als auch explikative Kulturelemente (= Concepta, vgl. Osgood 1951). Erstere umfassen beobachtbare Verhaltensweisen (z.B. Rituale wie Begrüßungen) und Verhaltensergebnisse (z.B. Architektur). Concepta hingegen steht für nicht-beobachtbare Verhaltensursachen wie Werte, Normen und Einstellungen.
Concepta-Percepta-Approach
Iceberg-Model
Percepta
Behavior (Social culture)
- Rituals
- Ceremonies
- Customs
- social structure
- -> Behavioral results (Material culture)
- Architecture
- Clothes
- Art and Decoration
Concepta-Percepta-Approach
Iceberg-Model
Concepta
Reason for behavior (mental culture)
- Taboos
- Norms
- Values
- Attitudes
(from bottom to top: increasing relevance for behavior)
(from top to bottom: number)
Diverging cultural standards
Culture Standard
Behavior patterns, which are perceived as normal or binding for the majority of the members of a culture.
Diverging cultural standards
Example: culture standards in the US and China
US
escape from absolutistic emperors
- individualism
- equal opportunities
- achievement orientation
- patriotism
virtues of the settlers
- activity orientation
- future orientation
- domination of nature
- mobility
- interpersonal accessibility
- composure
Diverging cultural standards
Example: culture standards in the US and China
China
Confucianism
- hierarchical orientation
- friendship and politeness
- modesty and self-control
Diverging cultural standards
Example: culture standards in the US and China
Social Smile
(in some Asian cultures)
= culture standard aiming at “hiding” feelings that are not desired to be expressed in order not to burdening others
-> sympathy, happiness, anger, sadness, embarrassment, confusion
Definition of culture
Synopsis (Keller 1982)
-> catalog of features identified through a content-analytical evaluation of the present definitions
Culture
= artifact
= collective phenomenon (not individual)
= learned (therefore our social heritage)
= characteristic symbolic system of signs
= behavioral control (values, norms, taboos)
= reciprocal adaption of the members of one culture
= gradual adaption (= cultural evolution)
= “quick” adaption (=cultural change)
Definition of Culture
Working definition of Müller/Gelbrich
Shared pool of knowledge that a group of people that a group of people shares and that distinguishes them from members of other cultures. Behavior-patterns, artifacts and patterns of perception as well as the handling and interpretation of emotions can also be culture-specific. The culture thus understood influences the behavior of individuals and provides a society with a common social reality, identity and cohesion.
Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck
Basic concept
- culture-anthropologist understanding of culture: static, constant
- all cultures have to solve the same problems (value orientation)
- cultures differ in the way they solve these problems (variation)
Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck
Defintion: culture
Culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and specially their attached values.
(…) learned by people as the results of belonging to a particular group, and is that part of learned behavior that os shared by others.
Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture
Overview of orientations
Human nature Man-nature Time Activity Relational
Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture
Orientation
Human nature
- evil (changeable/unchangeable)
- neutral (changeable)/mix of both (unchangeable)
- good (changeable/unchangeable)
Are human beings good or bad or both?
-> Societies based on trust or mistrust
Is this changeable or not?
-> Humanistic societies, India
Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture
Orientation
Man-nature relationship
subjugation to nature
-> Inkas, Aztecs
harmony with nature
-> Indian tribes, Buddhism
mastery over nature
-> Industrialism
Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture
Orientation
Time
Past
- > conservative societies
- > e.g. Victorian England
Present
- > consumer societies
- > e.g. US
Future
- > sustainable societies
- > e.g. Sweden, Norway
Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture
Orientation
Activity Orientation
being
- > status societies
- > e.g. Roman Empire
being in becoming
- > meritocracy
- > e.g. US (“getting things done”)
doing
- > also meritocracy
- > e.g. US (“Land of unlimited opportunity”)
Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck - Facts of human culture
Orientation
Relational orientation
Linear
- > group is in the focus (= collectivism), but one person stands out
- > Chinese emperor in a collectivistic China
Collateral
- > group is in focus (= collectivism), nobody stands out
- > communism
Individualistic
- > individual is in the focus (= individualism)
- > e.g. US
Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck
Acknowledgement
Pro and contra
Pro:
- basis for nearly all culture concepts
- does not put culture and country on one level (-> Rimrocks)
Contra:
- Empirical evaluation only for Rimrocks
- > external validity?
Anthropologic/communication Approach of Hall/Hall
Basic Idea
- cultures are different with regard to their directness
- > manifested in personal contact, physical distance, language
- context of the communication is emphasized to a greater or lesser extent
- communications-science perspective (e.g. speaking, writing, pointing)
Anthropologic/communication Approach of Hall/Hall
Dimensions
Context (most important)
Information
Space
Time
Anthropologic/communication Approach of Hall/Hall
When would you call somebody a good communicator?
In some cultures confrontational is good, in some cultures they avoid confrontation
-> Asians are not confrontational, Germany is very confrontational, USA/Australia is in the middle
High- vs. low-context cultures
High-context-cultures
- implicit, unspoken, “included” information
Low-context-cultures
- explicit, spoken, “clarified” information
High- vs. low-context-cultures
High-context-cultures
Overtness (obviousness) of messages: Use of non-verbal communication: Cohesion and separation of groups: Level of commitment to relationships: Appointments and contracts: Examples:
Overtness (obviousness) of messages:
- many covert and implicit messages, with use of metaphor and reading between the lines
Use of non-verbal communication:
- much nonverbal communication
Cohesion and separation of groups:
- strong distinction between in-group and outgroup, strong sense of family
Level of commitment to relationships:
- high commitment to relationships, relationship more important than task
Appointments and contracts:
- mainly verbal
Examples:
- France, Spain, Italy, Middle East, Japan, Russia
High- vs. low-context-cultures
Low-context-cultures
Overtness (obviousness) of messages: Use of non-verbal communication: Cohesion and separation of groups: Level of commitment to relationships: Appointments and contracts: Examples:
Overtness (obviousness) of messages:
- many overt and explicit messages that are simple and clear
Use of non-verbal communication:
- more focus on verbal communication than body language
Cohesion and separation of groups:
- flexible and open group patterns, changing as needed
Level of commitment to relationships:
- low commitment to relationships, tasks more important than relationships
Appointments and contracts:
- written down
Examples:
- Germany, Switzerland, US, Scandinavia
Ways how Information is treated
Slow Flow of Information
- plan information carefully and structure it
- tend to portion (divide) information, not to give more than absolutely necessary
Examples of slow messages:
- Poetry, Books, Act, Etching, TV documentary, print, deep relations
Ways how information is treated
Fast flow of information
- think that the more quickly the information is spread, the better it is for all
Examples of fast messages:
- Prose, headlines, Propaganda, cartoons, TV commercials, Television, Social Media
Space
Social Distance
- distance between people when communicating
- different perceptions of spatial closeness
- partially related to the context dimension
- > low-context-cultures: bigger “private zone”
Time
Time Orientation
Supplement to Kluckhohn/Strodtbeck:
Not only the importance of past, present and future is different, also time perception:
monochronic:
- linear, successive, steady nature -> processes
polychronic:
- cyclic, volatile, dynamic
Time Orientation
Monochronic action
Actions: Focus: Attention to time: Priority: Timeliness: Examples:
Actions:
- Do one thing at a time
Focus:
- Concentrate on the job at hand
Attention to time:
- Think about when things must be achieved
Priority:
- Put the job first
Timeliness:
- Emphasize promptness (quick = agility)
Examples:
- Germany, USA, Scandinavian countries
Time orientation
Polychronic action
Actions: Focus: Attention to time: Priority: Timeliness: Examples:
Actions:
- Do many things at once
Focus:
- are easily distracted
Attention to time:
- think about what will be achieved
Priority:
- put relationships first
Timeliness:
- base promptness relationship factors
Examples:
- Latin America, Middle East, Russia
Time Orientation
Consequences for Cross-Cultural Marketing
Time Saving
Example: McDonald’s
Polychronic time:
Time prosperity -> USP: easy food
e.g. Brazil, Costa Rica etc.
Monochronic time:
Time greed -> USP: fast food
e.g. US, Germany etc.
Time Orientation
Consequences for Cross-Cultural Marketing
Time Sovereignity
- home shopping/home banding -> Online-/mobile marketing
- express cleaning / express service
- shop opening hours / 24hrs services
Time orientation
Consequences for Cross-cultural Marketing
Waiting Time
Monochrone time-structure
Waiting time
- > time lost
- > overestimated
- > disproportionality impaired customer satisfaction
- Television in the waiting area
Example: Airline passengers - long waiting times at baggage claim
-> Solution: Prolong the path through pass control
-> In monochronistic structures waiting leads to dissatisfaction
Time orientation
Consequences for Cross-cultural Marketing
Waiting Time
Polychrone time-structure
Waiting time
- > time used in another way
- > underestimated
- > adding additional offers in waiting area
Time
Time-perception as Three-dimensional Construct
Time structure:
- monochronic vs. polychronic
Course of time:
- cyclic vs. linear
Concept of time:
- abstract vs. concrete
Time
Time-perception as Three-dimensional Construct
linear, abstract, monochronic
industrialised countries, monotheistic religions
Time
Time-perception as Three-dimensional Construct
cyclic, concrete, polychronic
archaic societies, polytheistic religions
Time
Course of time
Industrial societies, monotheistic religions
- Linear course of time
- Voluntaristic concept of the world
Starts at one point ends at another point
Genesis -> last judgement
Time
Course of time
Archaic societies, polytheistic religions
- Cyclic course of time
- Deterministic concept of the world
Time base: nature
Time
Kinds of time orientation
past-oriented:
- past > present and future
Present-oriented:
- present > past and future
Future-oriented:
- future > past and present
