culture Flashcards
different societies seem to show differences in _____ of various psychological types, according to Lincoln (1936).
relative frequency of occurrence
has cross-cultural studies been studied for long?
no. only recently entered mainstream research and practice
the guidelines on multicultural education, training, research, practice and organisational change for psychologists came out in _____.
2002
what is one evidence that differences in culture had not been considered in early studies?
majority of psychological research and theories are derived from the West, accounting for only 10% of world
there are 2 main ways culture can be studied. what are they?
- cross-cultural research - similar concepts/studies conducted in different cultures
- intercultural research - different individuals from different cultures interact with each other
intercultural vs cross-cultural research
intercultural - different individuals from different cultures interact with each other
cross-cultural research - similar concepts/studies conducted in different cultures
Culture is deeply woven into our lives, but we often _____ how it influences our knowledge and actions, and we rarely question or ______ it.
overlook; explain
cultural practices and behaviours are often studied in the ___ and ___ perspectives.
emic and etic
what are emic and etic? what is the difference?
they are perspectives used to study cultural practices and behaviours
emic (insider/focal/particular/1st order) - subjective understanding of culture from internal elements and structure
etic (outsider/global/universal/2nd order) - outsider’s observation and objective interpretation of the culture
_________ and _______ of a construct are tested in cross-cultural validation studies so results can be compared or generalized.
what are the differences between the 2 answers above?
meaningfulness - same thing (the concept or construct) is measured, but in a way that makes sense to people in each culture. (for relevance and comprehension)
- Does the concept have the same meaning across cultures?
equivalence - same thing measured same way even in different cultures. no biases. (for comparison)
- Does the test measure the same thing in different cultures?
besides testing language equivalence, what are 2 additional issues in cross-cultural research?
- cultural response sets - individuals from different cultural abckgrounds or context provide varying patterned responses to survey/interviews
- cultural flexibility - how willing people are willing to adapt to cultural differences
what is cultural response sets?
an issue in cross-cultural research
tendency for individuals from certain cultures to answer questions in a specific, patterned way due to their cultural background or the context they are in
eg. collectivist cultures (asians) will rank family higher than individualist cultures (westerners) who may rank friends above family due to cultural values surround family issues
what is cultural flexibility?
an issue in cross-cultural research, too high or low a cultural flexibility affects accuracy of results, and makes findings hard to compare/generalise
how willing people are willing to adapt to cultural differences
eg. a person with high cultural flexibility easily navigates cultural differences, while someone with lower flexibility may struggle or feel uncomfortable with unfamiliar practices.
according to linton (1936, 1945),
personality is described in __________ and ______.
there are 2 types of organisation, _______ and ________.
the former includes the most ____ aspects of personality that is stable/unstable while the latter consists of aspects that _________ based on social situation, roles, or external expectations.
content; organisation
central; superficial/surface
invariant/unchangeable/stable; change/vary
according to linton (1936, 1945),
_________ is the internalisation of cultural characteristics (beliefs, customs, traditions, values) as part of their __________.
it does/does not pervade every aspect (family, education, media, social norms) of the society that person lives in.
enculturation; personality
does
according to linton (1936, 1945), what is status personality?
creation of a persona that fits social expectations
eg. doctor, teacher, fireman will have a persona outside their private selves that fits their role in society
what are 2-spirit people? which culture are they from?
2 spirit people are from the native american culture.
They embody or perform female-associated roles and male-associated roles depending on the situation or the needs of the community.
eg. healers, spiritual leaders, or even act as mediators in the tribe.
according to kardiner (1939):
ego structure aka a person’s personality is dependent on ________.
a person’s character is a unique ____________ to the environment within that ______ setting.
______ system refers a series of _________ to ensure acceptance, approval, support, esteem and status within a group/society. this interaction system is ongoing and _______.
culture
adaptation; cultural
security; adaptations; cyclical
according to sorokin (1947), does culture have an influence on biological substrates of personality?
yes. culture determines marriage, family structure, and procreation, which has a consequence on biological outcome, genetics and heredity.
what are the 4 key factors in studying culture?
- religion
- race
- gender
- age
what is there to note on religion when studying culture?
- there is variation in formal religious practices in routine life
- in early cultural studies, religion and its importance often overlooked due to early theorists’ own stances
- religion and spirituality have seen favourable research interest recently due to rise of positive psychology which focuses on aspects of life that make people feel happy, fulfilled, and well
is there a clear answer as to what constitute race?
no.
- no visually obvious cue.
- studies showed that there is more geentic variance within group than between, so there is no biological difference that can clearly classify people into races.
- race is merely a social construct.
instead of race, some people employ the term _____ which includes ____, ____ and _____.
does this still have the same operational problems as race?
ethnicity; nationality; culture; language
yes
what is ethnocentricm?
in terms of beliefs and practices, my culture is correct and yours is wrong
what are the 2 main issues under race as a challenge in the study of culture?
- ethnocentrism - in terms of beliefs and practices, my culture is correct and yours is wrong
- racism - discrimination against people based on their race
old age is marked by:
1) ____ of one’s children, and then
2) ____ of gender roles (men might have been expected to be the primary breadwinners, while women might have been responsible for domestic duties and caregiving).
maturation; relaxation
dramatic cultural changes favour the young in ________ societies.
contemporary
older individuals retain their leadership status in _________.
religion
regarding mastery (guttman, 1987):
young men - _____ mastery
older men - _____ mastery
oldest men - ____ mastery
active (autonomy, competence, control)
passive (adaptation, accommodation)
magical (vulnerable. seeks protection)
why should we bother with culture in studies?
culture provides ________ where individual variation is possible but provides a __________ basis of understanding of the people within it.
certain behaviours/traits/motives might be important to certain cultures and not others.
there is cultural _______ in mental health issues.
give an example for this.
framework; consistent
differences
eg. taijin kyofusho (TKS) - social anxiety disorder, scared to offend or embarrass others through their physical appearance, behavior, or perceived bodily functions. people with TKS fear that they are not living up to social expectations of behavior and self-presentation, which can lead to feelings of shame and embarrassment.
eg. dhat syndrome - anxiety over the loss of semen and the perceived health effects of that loss, especially in cultures where there is significant concern about sexuality and masculinity.
- South Asian cultures (especially India and Pakistan)
