culture

Question 1

different societies seem to show differences in _____ of various psychological types, according to Lincoln (1936).

Answer 1

relative frequency of occurrence

Question 2

has cross-cultural studies been studied for long?

Answer 2

no. only recently entered mainstream research and practice

Question 3

the guidelines on multicultural education, training, research, practice and organisational change for psychologists came out in _____.

Answer 3

2002

Question 4

what is one evidence that differences in culture had not been considered in early studies?

Answer 4

majority of psychological research and theories are derived from the West, accounting for only 10% of world

Question 5

there are 2 main ways culture can be studied. what are they?

Answer 5

1. cross-cultural research - similar concepts/studies conducted in different cultures
2. intercultural research - different individuals from different cultures interact with each other

Question 6

intercultural vs cross-cultural research

Answer 6

intercultural - different individuals from different cultures interact with each other

cross-cultural research - similar concepts/studies conducted in different cultures

Question 7

Culture is deeply woven into our lives, but we often _____ how it influences our knowledge and actions, and we rarely question or ______ it.

Answer 7

overlook; explain

Question 8

cultural practices and behaviours are often studied in the ___ and ___ perspectives.

Answer 8

emic and etic

Question 9

what are emic and etic? what is the difference?

Answer 9

they are perspectives used to study cultural practices and behaviours

emic (insider/focal/particular/1st order) - subjective understanding of culture from internal elements and structure

etic (outsider/global/universal/2nd order) - outsider’s observation and objective interpretation of the culture

Question 10

_________ and _______ of a construct are tested in cross-cultural validation studies so results can be compared or generalized.

what are the differences between the 2 answers above?

Answer 10

meaningfulness - same thing (the concept or construct) is measured, but in a way that makes sense to people in each culture. (for relevance and comprehension)
- Does the concept have the same meaning across cultures?

equivalence - same thing measured same way even in different cultures. no biases. (for comparison)
- Does the test measure the same thing in different cultures?

Question 11

besides testing language equivalence, what are 2 additional issues in cross-cultural research?

Answer 11

1. cultural response sets - individuals from different cultural abckgrounds or context provide varying patterned responses to survey/interviews
2. cultural flexibility - how willing people are willing to adapt to cultural differences

Question 12

what is cultural response sets?

Answer 12

an issue in cross-cultural research

tendency for individuals from certain cultures to answer questions in a specific, patterned way due to their cultural background or the context they are in

eg. collectivist cultures (asians) will rank family higher than individualist cultures (westerners) who may rank friends above family due to cultural values surround family issues

Question 13

what is cultural flexibility?

Answer 13

an issue in cross-cultural research, too high or low a cultural flexibility affects accuracy of results, and makes findings hard to compare/generalise

how willing people are willing to adapt to cultural differences

eg. a person with high cultural flexibility easily navigates cultural differences, while someone with lower flexibility may struggle or feel uncomfortable with unfamiliar practices.

Question 14

according to linton (1936, 1945),

personality is described in __________ and ______.

there are 2 types of organisation, _______ and ________.

the former includes the most ____ aspects of personality that is stable/unstable while the latter consists of aspects that _________ based on social situation, roles, or external expectations.

Answer 14

content; organisation

central; superficial/surface

invariant/unchangeable/stable; change/vary

Question 15

according to linton (1936, 1945),

_________ is the internalisation of cultural characteristics (beliefs, customs, traditions, values) as part of their __________.

it does/does not pervade every aspect (family, education, media, social norms) of the society that person lives in.

Answer 15

enculturation; personality

does

Question 16

according to linton (1936, 1945), what is status personality?

Answer 16

creation of a persona that fits social expectations
eg. doctor, teacher, fireman will have a persona outside their private selves that fits their role in society

Question 17

what are 2-spirit people? which culture are they from?

Answer 17

2 spirit people are from the native american culture.

They embody or perform female-associated roles and male-associated roles depending on the situation or the needs of the community.

eg. healers, spiritual leaders, or even act as mediators in the tribe.

Question 18

according to kardiner (1939):

ego structure aka a person’s personality is dependent on ________.

a person’s character is a unique ____________ to the environment within that ______ setting.

______ system refers a series of _________ to ensure acceptance, approval, support, esteem and status within a group/society. this interaction system is ongoing and _______.

Answer 18

culture

adaptation; cultural

security; adaptations; cyclical

Question 19

according to sorokin (1947), does culture have an influence on biological substrates of personality?

Answer 19

yes. culture determines marriage, family structure, and procreation, which has a consequence on biological outcome, genetics and heredity.

Question 20

what are the 4 key factors in studying culture?

Answer 20

1. religion
2. race
3. gender
4. age

Question 21

what is there to note on religion when studying culture?

Answer 21

• there is variation in formal religious practices in routine life
• in early cultural studies, religion and its importance often overlooked due to early theorists’ own stances
• religion and spirituality have seen favourable research interest recently due to rise of positive psychology which focuses on aspects of life that make people feel happy, fulfilled, and well

Question 22

is there a clear answer as to what constitute race?

Answer 22

no.

• no visually obvious cue.
• studies showed that there is more geentic variance within group than between, so there is no biological difference that can clearly classify people into races.
• race is merely a social construct.

Question 23

instead of race, some people employ the term _____ which includes ____, ____ and _____.

does this still have the same operational problems as race?

Answer 23

ethnicity; nationality; culture; language

yes

Question 24

what is ethnocentricm?

Answer 24

in terms of beliefs and practices, my culture is correct and yours is wrong

Question 25

what are the 2 main issues under race as a challenge in the study of culture?

Answer 25

1. ethnocentrism - in terms of beliefs and practices, my culture is correct and yours is wrong
2. racism - discrimination against people based on their race

Question 26

old age is marked by:

1) ____ of one’s children, and then

2) ____ of gender roles (men might have been expected to be the primary breadwinners, while women might have been responsible for domestic duties and caregiving).

Answer 26

maturation; relaxation

Question 27

dramatic cultural changes favour the young in ________ societies.

Answer 27

contemporary

Question 28

older individuals retain their leadership status in _________.

Answer 28

religion

Question 29

regarding mastery (guttman, 1987):

young men - _____ mastery

older men - _____ mastery

oldest men - ____ mastery

Answer 29

active (autonomy, competence, control)

passive (adaptation, accommodation)

magical (vulnerable. seeks protection)

Question 30

why should we bother with culture in studies?

culture provides ________ where individual variation is possible but provides a __________ basis of understanding of the people within it.

certain behaviours/traits/motives might be important to certain cultures and not others.

there is cultural _______ in mental health issues.
give an example for this.

Answer 30

framework; consistent

differences

eg. taijin kyofusho (TKS) - social anxiety disorder, scared to offend or embarrass others through their physical appearance, behavior, or perceived bodily functions. people with TKS fear that they are not living up to social expectations of behavior and self-presentation, which can lead to feelings of shame and embarrassment.

eg. dhat syndrome - anxiety over the loss of semen and the perceived health effects of that loss, especially in cultures where there is significant concern about sexuality and masculinity.
- South Asian cultures (especially India and Pakistan)