Cultural Evolution: Lectures

Question 1

what anthropological roots are associated with cultural and evolutionary psychology?

Answer 1

cultural psychology is nested within cultural anthropology and cultural evolution is nested within biological anthropoolgy.

biological:
favours quantitative methods, views humans as being a cultural species, argues culture is biological therefore, we should use the terms genetic and cultural (inheritance and transmission)

cultural:
believes in the reciprocity and mutual embeddedness of culture and psyche, the focus within cultural psychology is on the “way of life” (not universals), favours qualitative methods.

Question 2

single-level vs multi-level theory:

Answer 2

single:
genetics is the only mechanism for evolution (i.e., selfish genes).

Multi-level:
theories of evolution focus on the transmission of inheritable variations in both culture and genes.

Question 3

(3) caveats in evolutionary psychology?

Answer 3

1. naturalistic fallacy
2. adaptionism
3. just-so stories

Question 4

what is the naturalistic fallacy?

i.e. caveat

Answer 4

The tendency for people to claim that something is good/acceptable/necessary merely because it is “natural” or evolved.

For example in advertising where potato chips are described as being “natural” to imply that they are better for you and healthier.

Question 5

what is the adapitonism view?
i.e. caveat

2 ways to search for an adaption

Answer 5

o Is an approach towards evolution that believes that natural selection among individuals within a population is the only important cause of evolution.

o Adaptationists believe that species do not work towards a certain goal but that their adaptions accumulate overtime to produce evolutionary change within a species.

o Therefore, adaptationists only search for adaptions in one of two ways:
 In the forward form, the scientist postulates an environmental problem, then searches for the solution to the problem in the organism’s phenotype.

 In the backward form, the scientist starts with a known phenotypic solution, then searches for the environmental problem that could have produced it.

• E.g., we know birds have wings so we seek for answers in their environment that could have produced this adaption such as heat regulation. Wings allow for birds to capture and release heat meaning they are able to survive in both hot and cold climates.
• E.g., humans’ babies smile, cry and cling in order to maintain proximity with their caregiver. The evolutionary source of this adaption would be to protect offspring from predators.

Question 6

(4) Problems with adaptationist approach:

Within a single factor theories description

Answer 6

 Problems with description; descriptions made by theorists of evolutionary concepts or relevant behaviours may not exist in the world of organisms. This occurs in one of (4) ways:
• Arbitrary Agglomeration is a problem when you describe a concept as a single unit of analysis but it may be better understood in terms of a process between consistent parts.
• Reification occurs when researchers describe mental constructs as being a part of natural selection when they are not real objects.
• Anthropomorphism when innately human social relationships such as rape are applied onto non-human animals. In doing so, the term loses its inherent cultural meaning. When similar behaviours in humans are found in animals the two terms are often conflated as being the same thing when a relationship is not present.
• Reductionism is the tendency for researchers to simplify complex social organisations or events (i.e., war) is due to individual characteristics that are derived from their individual genetic predisposition for that trait. Single-level belief of transmission of genes cannot account for complex events like social revolutions that occur at too fast of a rate to be due to genetics alone.

Question 7

what are Just so Theories?

i.e. caveat

Answer 7

o An analogy that reflects just so theories are folk stories within culture that are used to explain why animals that we see today have evolved the way they have.
o E.g., how the camel got his hump.
o Reflects the tendency for researchers to take findings about people’s phenology and derive their own explanations for why that trait was favored by evolution but does not support their claim with valid and reliable data.
o It is important to remember we do not know the histories of the species we see today so claims about their evolution must be backed up by data about the original conditions of which the trait occurred in.
o Remove researcher assumptions and biases and create work grounded in the data.

Question 8

What is an alternative stance to adaptionism?

Answer 8

Pluralism:
o Because we do not have access to the species history of conditions, we cannot determine why it happened, but we are able to answer how it happened.
o Where researchers studying human evolution seek to find multiple causes and pathways to the evolutionary trait being examined.
o Tends to prefer multi-level theories rather than single level.
o Tends to look at complex interactions between multiple pathways that lead to evolutionary change.

Question 9

(3) Problems with pluralism?

Answer 9

o There is controversy on “group level selection” and whether or not it is capable of producing evolutionary change (i.e., genetic transmission is poor but sufficient for cultural transmission).
o Lacks Parsimony (i.e., clarity and coherency) having multiple pathways to evolutionary change can lead to issues of epicycles (i.e., not knowing whether the sun goes around the earth or the earth goes around the sun).
o Lacks the rigorous focus in adaptationists on selfish gene-centered transmission.

Question 10

what is the recipe for evolution (i.e., the three key ingredients).

Answer 10

1. Variation within the population (i.e., differences).
2. Differences within the population must be inheritable.
3. Selection pressure must be present (i.e., pressure for species survival to adapt and favor traits that boost the reproductive success of a species).
   * These three components must be present and interact overtime.

Question 11

what is genetic evolution?

Answer 11

 Genetic evolution is the change in allele (i.e., object of interests) frequency within a population (i.e., variation).
 For example, chromosomes exist within alleles which make up people’s DNA that can hold variations within a population.

Question 12

how do we identify “why” variations in alleles occur within a population?

Answer 12

By looking back at the (3) factor recipe for evolutionary change (i.e., variation, inheritance and selection pressures over time).

i.e., what were the selection pressures, how was it inherited, what was its frequency within the population.

Question 13

what is the key thing to remember when talking about variation?

why?

Answer 13

That evolution happens on populations, not individuals!

Research on the evolution of the human’s species requires us to think at the population level rather than remain individualistic.

Why?
Because humans did not evolve from chimps. Humans and chimps both share a common ancestor through which we independently and accumulate gradually over time.

Question 14

Can evolution occur without variation?

Answer 14

No.

Question 15

Inheritance:

a single factor gene perspective states…

Answer 15

 This is an example of a single factor theory that believes that genes are the primary and only important mechanism for evolution.
 This perspective believes that evolution occurs through the differential survival of competing alleles within a population.
 Furthermore, selfish genes (i.e., genes that produce a better outcome for survival at the expense of other gene expressions) are the genes that are most likely to be selected for and transmitted from one generation to the next because they aid reproductive success.
 Helps us understand phenomena like altruism, cooperation and intragenomic conflict that we cannot understand with an organic perspective.

Question 16

Issues with a single factor theory of evolution from a strictly genes perspective?

Answer 16

Genes must be expressed-
 Gene expression depends on the environment (i.e., how can it be a single factor theory when the expression of genes to aid our reproductive success require environmental factors to be expressed?) = an organism-centered view.
 Genotype:
o Is an individual’s own collection of genes.
 Phenotype:
o The observable physical/biomedical characteristics (i.e., personal characteristics) in the expression of a gene.

 For example, these are locust from the same species, but their phenotypic color differentiates based on their environment (i.e., they’re green when their environment is plentiful and ripe and black during drought season).
 In the organism-centered view, the phenotype is the most important consideration for predicting when a particular variant will be selected for or not.

*evolutionary success requires both genotype (unexpressed) and phenotype (expressed)
genes.

Question 17

can genetic evolution occur with only genotypes?

Answer 17

No, genotypes and phenotypes are required.

Question 18

what are genotypes or phenotypes?

Answer 18

Genotype:
o Is an individual’s own collection of genes.
 Phenotype:
o The observable physical/biomedical characteristics (i.e., personal characteristics) in the expression of a gene.

Question 19

what is Epigenetic Inheritance:

Answer 19

 DNA is wrapped around proteins called histones.
 DNA & histones are covered with chemical markers.
 Histones + these markers are called the epigenome.
 The epigenome controls the shape of the DNA, determining when and how genes are expressed.
 The epigenome can be influenced by environment.
 For example, epigenomes which are the chemicals that exist around DNA and turn it on and off (i.e., transform a genotype into a phenotype).
 Epigenetic markers are passed onto offspring by their parents gami in their reproductive cells.
 Research indicates that grandchildren of ancestors that were children of famine passed down epigenetic markers through generations that has made people today more at risk of heart palpitations/cardiovascular disease.

Question 20

(4) types of selection

Answer 20

1. Natural Selection
2. Sexual Selection
3. Kin Selection
4. Multilevel Selection

Question 21

Darwin stated that it is not the most intelligent species or the strongest species that survives but it is…

Answer 21

the one most responsive to change (i.e., adaptable).

Question 22

Natural Selection:
> is the only process that…
> it involves…
> example

Answer 22

 The only evolutionary process that leads to adaption.
 Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals with different phenotypes. This differential survival and reproduction is known as fitness.
 Adaptation: Adjustment to environmental conditions; modification of an organism or its parts that makes it more fit for existence under the conditions of its environment.
 For example, there is two different phenotypes in these beetles (i.e., green and red) the red beetle is selectively chosen and become more frequent within the population because it is the least likely to eaten by predators.

Question 23

How do we tell if a trait is an evolutionary adaption?

Answer 23

Is the trait adaptive? Is it adaption? I.e. is its function to improve reproductive success? Is it favoured by selective pressures?

 Current Adaption:
o If the trait is a variation of an earlier form.
o The trait is heritable through the transmission of genes.
o The trait enhances reproductive success.
 Past adaption:
o The evolutionary trait is no longer adaptive within the current environment because either the species or environment has changed.
 By-product:
o A trait that was not produced through natural selection but is present because it is the by-product of another trait (i.e., belly buttons are the product of umbilical cords).
 Exaptation:
o It was not built through natural selection for this purpose but is now beneficial for reproductive success in the current setting.

*exaptation and by-product categorisations of traits have been argued to define the 
  function and emergence of religious beliefs in humans.

Question 24

sexual selection:
> main theory associated with
it..
> how does it work?

Answer 24

For example, parental investment theory:
Argues that sexual dysmorphic animals (i.e., when males and females of the species look different) have these characteristics to facilitate sexual selection between animals where the cost of parenting is high. In contrast, animals, where males and females look identical, is indicative of animals where the cost of parenting is low and these traits are not needed.

High Investment (females):
 Each mating pairing is costly. Therefore the best strategy for the species is to be selective in their pair bonding and seek the “best” partner.
 Pairs tend to have fewer partners.
 Females tend to be more selective in choosing their partners (i.e., seek the best mate).
 Quality.
 Females.

Low Investment (males):
 Producing offspring is easy and not costly. Therefore, the best strategy is to mate s frequently and as with as many partners as possible.
 More opportunistic with their pairing and can have multiple partners.
 There is more competition among others of the same sex to display superior quality so they’re more likely to be selected.
 Quantity.
 Males.
 Costly signals to females to demonstrate their superior genes which will be better for reproductive success.

*in sexual dimorphic animals!

Question 25

Kin selection:
> how does it link to helping
others?

Answer 25

*why if genes are selfish does co-operation exist?
 Reproductive success of genetic relatives, even at the cost of organisms own survival or reproduction.
 Kin Altruism: altruistic behaviour that evolved from organisms behaving altruistically toward genetic relatives who shared the same altruism gene or genes.

 Kin selection is most compatible with selfish-gene (i.e., single-factor theory) of cultural evolution but kinship norms/system is more compatible with cultural transmission theory of human evolution.
 This is when people are more likely to act altruistic towards people who are genetically related to us because, in theory, incurring a personal cost to help them is actually helping ourselves by increasing the probability of our shared genes being transmitted to future generations.

Question 26

Multi-level theories:

Answer 26

more controversial pathway because there are two opposing sides-

Evolutionary Psychology:
(High Church or EP™)
§ Culture is Evoked – juke box analogy; humans all have cognitions/cultural models within us that are adaptive and evoked by external stimuli in our environment.
§ Strict adaptationists (i.e., traits evolved to adapt to their environment and increase reproductive success).

§ ONLY GENES EVOLVE (individual- gene-level selection)

Cultural Evolution:
(Esp. California/ UCLA school)
§ Culture as adaptation (i.e., a means of evolution; similar but not identical to gene transmission).

§ To understand the process of cultural transmission and how is an adaptive trait of evolution we use mathematical modelling.

§ GENES & CULTURES EVOLVE TOGETHER (Multilevel selection; Gene-Culture Co-evolution)

Question 27

the biggest difference between evolutionary and cultural evolution theory?

Answer 27

evolutionary psychology only looks at gene variation, inheritance and selection over time.

cultural evolutionary psychology looks at gene-culture variation, inheritance and selection over time (i.e., their co-evolution).

Question 28

what do evolutionary psychologists mean when they say culture is evoked?

Answer 28

single level thoery:
o Environmental variations evoke responses from a predictable set of possible mechanisms.
o For example, it’s a trait in all humans minds but specific environmental factors pull out specific traits in our behaviour repertoire.
o E.g., food sharing is present in every culture but the form of which it takes is variable across cultures.

Question 29

what is the Theory of Multilevel Selection?

Answer 29

o Theory that gene, cell, organism, and group level influences of evolution are simultaneously influenced evolution at the same time.
o Variations in genes transmission, inheritance, selection influence cell build-up and which of these phenotypes are differentially selected based on selective pressures from their environment which can produce between-group variance in human populations.
o Controversial that group-level variations occur in genetic evolution and this form of evolution is better suited for cultural transmission.

Question 30

what is the Culture-Gene Co-Evolution Theory?

Answer 30

o Theory which accepts that evolutionary traits can be inherited through genetics or cultural transmission.
o Cultural trait transmission is analogous to genetic transmission but is not identical (i.e., coded in the mind vs. in cells).
o Selection pressures influence both genetic and cultural traits.
o Dual inheritance model.

example: malaria
o African cultures shifted to a slash and burn agricultural practices which changed their environment and increased the presence of mosquitoes which transmit malaria (i.e., pathogen).
o The increase in pathogen risk of malaria led to their being a higher selective pressure for sickle cells which are resistant to malaria.
o Cultural behaviour changes the environment, which produces selective pressure, increases the frequency of adaptive trait = co-evolution.

Question 31

Cultural evolution

How do cultural forms adapt?

Answer 31

o	Religion (norms, beliefs, activities or technology develop due to culture) and produce differential success in groups of people.
o	i.e., punishable god = co-operation increases their reproductive success.

Question 32

Cultural Transmission

How do culture forms spread?

Answer 32

o Education and socialisation practices are the primary mechanisms for cultural transmission.
o Teachers may modify their behaviour to enable better transmission of cultural practices onto younger generations.
o Who do we choose who we learn from or imitate?

Question 33

Cultural Learning vs. social learning:

Answer 33

o Social learning:
o Gain new information through observation or instruction.
o Cultural Learning:
o Any type of social learning has the potential to be cultural (i.e., socially-learned information that is specific to a particular cultural group).
o Can only be acquired via observation or social learning (learning from someone else and not by ourselves).
o E.g., cannot learn how to build an iphone ourselves and would need someone which more knowledge and skill to show us how.

Question 34

What are the three major targets of cultural evolutionary research?

Answer 34

o what is Gene-culture co- 
   evolution and how does it 
   work?
o How is culture adaptive?
o How is culture transmitted?

Question 35

How does cultural evolution agree or disagree with:
cross-cultural
cultural
indigenous?

Answer 35

Cross cultural:
o Similarities:
o Emic.
o Can compares multiple cultures.
o Looks at some form of universals (i.e., moderate universalism).
o Some similarity/debate in culture being unimportant factor and can be factored out.
o Both prefer quantitative methods.
o Differences:
o Cross-cultural looks at accessibility universals and cultural evolution looks at functional and existential universals.
o External vs. internal culture.
o Evolutionary psychology uses mathematical models.
o Evolutionary psychology has ties in biological anthropology.
o Evolutionary looks at population level not individual.
o Looks at genetics and co-evolution.

Cultural:
o Similarities:
o Has ties to anthropology (cultural vs. biological anthropology)
o Uses models (cultural vs. mathematical)
o See culture as internal
o Looks at small-scale indigenous cultures.
o Difference:
o Emic vs. etic perspective.
o Universals vs. culture specific.
o Relativism vs. universalism stance.
o Qualitative vs. quantitative methods preference.
o Focus on change in traits overtime vs. the process of mutual constitution of the mind and environment.

Indigenous:
o Similarities:
o
o Differences:
o Emic (member of the group) and etic (outsider)
o Concerns about social justice, indigenous methods, conceptualisations and participation in community.
o Ownership of knowledge.

Question 36

History of the roots in biology, anthropology and psychology in cultural evolutionary psychology?

Answer 36

Biology:
o	Selfish genes-memes 
        (1970’s to 1980’s)
o	Culture-gene coevolution 
         (1970’s to 1980’s)
Anthropology:
o	Gene-culture coevolution 
         (mid 1980’s)
Psychology
o	Evoked culture (1990’s- 
        200’s)

Question 37

Pluralism argued that adoptionism can not identify __ evolution has occurred so we should look at ___ instead

Answer 37

Why, how.