Cross-Cultural READINGS Flashcards
Construct, Item, Method Bias of cognitive and personality tests in South Africa:
SUMMARY
Q: To what extent do the personality (15FQ+) and cognitive tests (reading and comprehension; spelling) used as entrance exams for the police academy meet the employment equity act of 1994 by examining the biases in these instruments.
Item-based biases did not significantly influence the cross-cultural findings.
Method-bias analysis found that cognitive ability and social desirability scores did not have any impact on the size of cross-cultural differences of the personality questionnaires.
The two cognitive measures showed there was low levels of construct bias; several items were biased however the effect sizes were so small that they had no significant effect on cross-cultural differences.
The structural equivalence of the personality measure significantly biased on dimensions (conventional-radical, relaxed-tense driven) in four language groups (whites, colored’s, Indians and Ndebele). The removal of the biased items did not change the effect size of the cross-cultural differences found.
The social desirability (response style proxy) and cognitive ability (English ability) did not influence the cultural differences found and did not contribute to method bias.
High structural equivalence was found in cognitive tests but not within the personality tests; many items in the personality test were biased but the effect size was so small that its effect on the cross-cultural difference was insignificant as well.
Serious concerns about the poor internal consistency (more so in black groups) in personality scales.
Factors of a questionnaire which are a threat to structural equivalence are:
The use of double meanings.
The complexity of the words (I.e., genuinely, analytical, intellectually etc.)
The use of idiomatical expressions (I.e., head in the clouds)
The use of quantifying words (I.e., less, on occasion, generally or rarely)
*cognitive tests were fine but there were problems with the personality scales.
Bias and Equivalence occur when:
Bias occurs when the score differences in the indicators of a particular construct do not correspond with differences in the underlying trait or ability.
Equivalence refers to the comparability of scores across different cultural groups.
Three levels of bias:
Construct Bias; occurs when the construct (I.e., concept) being measured is not identical across cultural groups or when the behaviors that are characteristic of the construct being measured are not identical across cultures.
Method Bias; occurs when there are pragmatical issues in the methodology of the study or application of the psychological tests. There are three types of method bias; 1) sample bias-samples are not equivalent on all factors; 2) instrument bias- problems in the structure of the test or instrument; 3) administration bias- issues that arise from the application of the instrument.
Item Bias (or differential item functioning); refer to instances where the meaning of psychological meaning of one or more items in the instrument are not identical across cultures.
*important to identify potential biases to ensure that there is an established equivalence before any comparisons is made so we can be confident that the cross-cultural differences are real and not due to issues of biases.
Three Levels of Equivalence:
There are three levels of equivalence:
Construct Equivalence: ensures that the construct being measured (regardless of whether the same instrument is being used to measure the same construct) across cultural groups is being measured (I.e., construct is universal).
Metric or Measurement Equivalence: when metric units are equivalent although they are obtained from different instruments (I.e., degrees Celsius and farenheight) can be made if the difference of scale origin is known.
Scalar or full-scale equivalence: the two metric scales have the same measurement unit and the same origin.
three different ways to define culture
here are 300 existing definitions of culture; among which there are six common themes but only three are relevant to cross-cultural psychology.
Culture defined as a structure:
Focuses on structural components of culture such as norms, social roles and phenomena such as beliefs, values and attitudes.
Typically discusses culture as being an existing system of meanings which is shared within a cultural group.
Culture defined as a function:
This definition of culture takes an evolutionary perspective in which cultural characteristics seen today are an evolutionary adaption to selective pressure in our environment which have been inherited from previous generations of our species.
Culture defined as a process:
People are viewed to have a cultural tool kit of knowledge which is drawn upon in different ways based on the current needs of our environment and socialization.
Focus on western conceptualizations of cognitive mechanisms that are more analytical than a holistic definition of them.
*each of these definitions have a different component they consider core to culture and
variations in what other factors are considered relevant to culture.
what is a culture orientation?
Culture Orientation:
A general term used to refer to any one of the various measures currently used to characterize culturally relevant individual-level attributes, such as self-construal, values or beliefs.
Places importance on the continual interplay between culture and the individuals who are socialized by it and in turn sustained by it (I.e., common theme in cultural psychology).
Two justifications for holding a cultural orientation:
Existential uncertainty: human beings are programmed to understand the meanings and resources in our socio-cultural environment.
Intentional (or constitutional) worlds asserts that subjects and objects, practitioners and practices cannot be analyzed into independent and interdependent variables.
Cultural psychologists emphasize mutual continuation of individual and culture as being highly interconnected and inseparable.
Cross-cultural psychologists see the benefit in using different terms to characterize individual-level (personality and cultural orientation; individual level) and the extent to which their understanding of events is shared by others (culture; national level).
Culture can be factored out of the individual in cross-cultural psychology.
*the distinction between ___ and __ is vital component of cross-cultural research.
behaviors and meaning
Disscussion
In contrast to popular assumption climate and personality are not linked; Distance from the equator and temperature were associated with conscientiousness (although not in the expected direction); for all other personality factors, correlations were confounded with other variables.
Black and White South Africans had very different personality profiles, despite living in the same country for many generations- no environmental determinism.
This study’s major contribution is the identification of a phenomenon not previously recognized—that is, the distribution of self-reported personality traits is organized geographically. European cultures in general high in affective and intellectual autonomy and Asian cultures high in conservatism and hierarchy.
However, two very large questions remain. The first is whether the patterns seen here represent real differences in personality or merely differences in self-reports. Cultures may differ in response styles or self-presentational strategies, conceivably giving rise to the differences seen here. It also calls into question social comparison theory, according to which people evaluate themselves relative to similar others.
Potential alternative explanations for variance; acculturation, genetics, ethnic variations.
Acculturation studies and other natural experiments offer the only feasible way to disentangle genetic from cultural effects. One found that differences between Chinese and Canadians of European ancestry were progressively attenuated with longer residence in Canada; in particular, Canadian culture appeared to increase openness and agreeableness. But even Chinese born and raised in Canada were more introverted than Canadians of European ancestry, suggesting a possible inborn difference in temperament.
These findings are consistent with the postulates of five-factor theory (McCrae & Costa, 1999), which distinguishes between personality traits —considered to be biologically-based basic tendencies—and attitudes and values, which are culturally-influenced characteristic adaptations.
