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CUE 3231 Flashcards

1
Q

As of 2014, how much of the world lived in an urban area?

A

54%

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2
Q

In 1960, how much of the world’s population lived in an urban area?

A

34%

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3
Q

How can cities be efficient?

A

Because it is easier to provide basic services such as water and sanitation to people living close together.

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4
Q

Define urbanisation.

A

The process by which an increasing proportion of people live in towns or cities.

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5
Q

How do cities play an important role in reducing poverty?

A

Because they hold much of the national economic activity, government institutions, business and transportation and have higher levels of education therefore greater opportunities for cultural and political participation.

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6
Q

How does São Paulo demonstrate a city’s importance in human affairs?

A

São Paulo holds 10% of the population, but accounts for 25% of GDP.

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7
Q

What are the fastest growing urban areas?

A

Medium sized cities and cities with less than 1 million inhabitants. For example, in India it is predicted that 70% of India’s cities have not yet been built.

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8
Q

In what ways have some cities experienced population decline?

A

Economic decline in Buffalo and Detroit between 2000 and 2014 led to population decline. Also New Orleans experienced population loos after the Hurricane Katrina.

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9
Q

What are the two main causes of urbanisation?

A
  • rural to urban migration

- natural population growth

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10
Q

What age profile do urban areas tend to have?

A

Young and fertile

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11
Q

Why are younger people generally attracted to cities?

A

Because of the prospect of higher paid jobs, better educational opportunities and greater social and cultural diversity.

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12
Q

In London, what is the area stretching from Clapham to Fulham informally known as?

A

Nappy Valley

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13
Q

Once young people have moved to the city, why is it they usually stay?

A

Because of rising costs and time commuting.

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14
Q

What is a push factor?

A

A negative thing which causes people to move away from the city from rural areas.

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15
Q

What is a pull factor?

A

A positive thing that attracts people to move from the rural area to a city.

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16
Q

What are the 5 main push factors for rural to urban migration?

A
  • wars and civil strife
  • natural disasters
  • agricultural problems
  • population growth
  • inadequate medical provision
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17
Q

What are the 4 main pull factors for rural to urban migration?

A
  • employment
  • earning money in the informal sector
  • a perceived better quality of life
  • better quality social provisions
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18
Q

Explain population growth as a push factor.

A

The same area of land has to support increasing numbers of people, causing overfarming, soil erosion and low yields.

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19
Q

Explain agricultural problems as a push factor.

A

Agriculture is increasingly being organised globally. Land previously used to grow food for local people is now used to produce cash crops for sale in higher income countries. Thus, many traditional rural communities are been driven off their land.

Also, desertification because of low rainfall, systems of inheritance that cause large plots of land to be divided into small pieces.

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20
Q

Explain employment as a pull factor.

A

Work in factories and service industries (e.g. hotels) which is better paid than in rural areas. Especially as there is increasing demand for unskilled labour in cities.

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21
Q

Examples of jobs in the informal sector.

A

Prostitution, taxi driver, selling goods on the street.

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22
Q

Where does the perceived better quality of life come from?

A

Images from the media

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23
Q

What are the 5 main consequences of urbanisation?

A
  • urban sprawl
  • shortage of housing
  • lack of urban services, waste disposal
  • unemployment and underemployment
  • lack of transportation
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24
Q

Define urban sprawl.

A

The spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside.

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25
Q

When there’s a shortage of housing in lower income countries, where is new housing found?

A
  • on the edge of a city
  • in places of low land value (because of environmental hazards e.g. flooding/landslides)
  • adjacent to transport networks
  • where there are high levels of air, noise or water pollution
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26
Q

Settlements in low income countries often have…

A

Limited access to basic infrastructure e.g. water, electricity and waste disposal. Also a lack of services e.g. health centres and schools.

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27
Q

As reported by the UN, the number of people living in slums in 2013 was…

A

863 million

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28
Q

Regarding slums, what was the success against the Millennium Development Goal?

A

The UN reports that over 320 million people living in slums gained access to improved water sources, improved sanitation or less crowded housing.

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29
Q

What is the target of the Post 2015 Sustainable Development Goal regarding slums?

A

Ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and to upgrade slums by 2030.

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30
Q

What are the three strategies of dealing with slums?

A
  • eradicate slums
  • self help schemes
  • slum upgrading programmes
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31
Q

Description and evaluation of eradicating slums.

A

Knocking down slum housing.

This simply moves the problem elsewhere.

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32
Q

Description of self help and site and service schemes.

A

These schemes acknowledge the presence of slums and provide help in the form of materials and services.

These schemes have been helpful in some cities, but the quantity and quality of housing remains inadequate in most areas.

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33
Q

Describe and evaluate self help schemes.

A

Inhabitants are given legal ownership of the land and so people can improve their land slowly (eg by replacing mud walls with bricks, fitting proper windows and doors, adding upper floors).
Bus operators start and health centres are built.
People work together and over time it changes to a legal, medium quality housing area.

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34
Q

Describe site and service schemes.

A

Land is divided into plots by the authorities. Roads, water and sanitation may be provided. Newcomers can rent land and build a house following guidelines.
When they have more money, they can improve their house.

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35
Q

Describe slum upgrading programmes.

A

More recent initiatives that seek to improve slums in partnership with local Non-Governmental Organisations.

The focus is on securing rights for dwellers, formalising land tenure rights and providing basic amenities eg electricity, water.

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36
Q

Slum Dwellers International (SDI) is a slum upgrading programme. Describe what it is.

A

It is an organisation which gives a voice to those living in informal settlements and links up poor communities across Africa, Asia and Latin America. The idea is for slum dwellers to share their knowledge and expertise so that they are no t excluded from the economic and political processes happening in their cities.

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37
Q

Between 2010 and 2015 in London, there was a __% rise in average house prices.

A

50%.

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38
Q

Why was there a 50% rise in average house prices in London between 2010 and 2015?

A

Due to immigration, gentrification and wealthy foreign investors buying properties.

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39
Q

Why do overseas investors buy properties in London?

A

Because London is a major global hub and they buy here to diversify their international portfolio.

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40
Q

Poor maintenance of infrastructure can result in…

A
  • traffic congestion
  • polluted water courses
  • flooding
  • rapid spread of disease
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41
Q

Problem with the old pipeline infrastructure in India?

A

It has not kept up with urbanisation. So in 2015, only 5% of piped water reached the slum areas of 42 Indian cities.

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42
Q

Example of where waste disposal is a good opportunity?

A

Nairobi, Kenya.

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43
Q

What happens with water in Nairobi, Kenya?

A

Recycling is an important part of everyday life.

  • old car tyres cut up to make cheap sandals
  • washing machine doors used as kitchen bowls
  • glass bottles collected then returned to store for refilling
  • food waste is collected and fed to animals
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44
Q

What is under employment?

A

A situation in which a person is not doing work that makes full use of their skills and abilities. Often occurs when a migrant moves to a new city.

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45
Q

When was the car boom?

A

In the 1960s

46
Q

What happened during the 1960s car boom?

A

City planners built more and wider roads as a solution. This didn’t work because they just attracted more cars.

47
Q

Define suburbanisation.

A

The movement of people from living in the inner part of the city to living on the outer edges.
It has been facilitated by the development of transport networks and increase in car ownership.
It results in the spread of an urban area.

48
Q

Causes of suburbanisation: 1930s.

A

Not many planning controls, so urban growth occurred along main roads (ribbon development). This caused urban sprawl due to the lack of controls.

49
Q

Causes of suburbanisation: 1940s.

A

The growth of urban areas (ribbon development) caused concern.
This led to the establishments of greenbelt areas to control further development.

50
Q

Causes of suburbanisation: 1950s.

A

Suburbanisation has increased, but been better planned.

During 50s and 60s, large scale construction of council housing estates in the suburbs of greenfield sites. (Some became known as sink estates).

51
Q

During the 50s and 60s, council housing was built on greenfield sites in the suburbs. What were these known as?

A

Sink estates.

52
Q

Causes of suburbanisation: 1970s.

A

Increasing home ownership (thanks to mortgages). This led to private housing estates on the rural urban fringe on greenfield sites.
Residents had more land for garages and gardens. Also cleaner air and access to open and rural areas.

53
Q

Causes of suburbanisation: 1980s onwards.

A

New housing estates built with local shopping parades, out of town shopping centres, leisure parks and schools have been built in suburban areas.

This is because suburbs are seen as crime free with benefits of rural urban fringe: woodlands, parks, golf courses.

54
Q

2 negative impacts of suburbanisation?

A
  • increasing social segregation within cities. The wealthy move to the suburbs and the poorer remain within the city (particularly in USA).
  • funding has been diverted away from the inner cities. To other suburbs to pay for new infrastructure and services.
55
Q

Define counter-urbanisation.

A

The movement of people from urban areas into smaller urban areas or rural areas, leapfrogging the rural-urban fringe.

The difference between rural and urban areas is reduced because of this movement.

56
Q

Causes of counter urbanisation?

A
  • people want to escape air pollution, crime, dirt of urban area.
  • they aspire to what they see as the pleasant, quiet, clean countryside where land and house prices are cheaper.
  • car ownership and greater affluence allow people to commute to work from these areas.
  • improvements in technology e.g. the internet has allowed freedom of location (a person at home can have the same global system as someone in an office block in the city centre).
  • rising demand for second homes and early retirement. Agriculture has faces increasing economic difficulties and one way to raise money is to sell unwanted buildings.
  • employers have moved out of cities. Between 1981 and 1996, rural areas gained 1m jobs.
57
Q

How does counter urbanisation affect the layout of rural settlements?

A
  • former open areas are built on
  • old properties and agricultural buildings are converted and modernised
  • modern housing estates built on edges of small settlements
  • small industrial estates are built on main roads leading into the settlement
58
Q

What is the main problem of counter urbanisation?

A

There is tension between newcomers and locals.
One of the main reasons for this is that despite the influx of new people, local services close fíen.
Bus services for many rural communities have disappeared, schools and post offices closed, churches closed, parishes amalgamated.

The REASON for this is that newcomers have the wealth and mobility to continue to use services some distance away.

59
Q

What’s the evidence for counter urbanisation?

A
  • increased value of houses
  • increase in the use of commuter railway station, including car parking for commuters
  • construction of executive housing, often on newly designated building land following the demolition of old properties
  • conversions of former farm buildings to exclusive residences
60
Q

Counter urbanisation contributes to ‘rural turnaround’. The main changes of this include…

A
  • outmigration of young village-born adults seeking education and employment opportunities elsewhere
  • decline of the elderly born village population through deaths
  • in migration of young to middle aged couples or families with children
  • in migration of younger, more affluent people which results in increased house prices
61
Q

Define urban resurgence.

A

The economic and structural regeneration of an urban area which has suffered from a period of decline.
This can be initiated by redevelopment schemes.

62
Q

Causes of urban resurgence in the U.K.

A
  • gentrification and regeneration schemes have made city living more attractive. This is particularly true of former industrial cities which suffered decline in 70s and 80s as a result of de-industrialisation.
  • they have reinvented themselves as cities of culture and commerce (eg London, Manchester, Leeds). This has attracted more uni students, young professionals, migrant workers.
  • this process has resulted in changing the urban landscape. Urban redevelopment schemes have transformed run down areas by rebranding them as fashionable quarters (eg Jewellery Quarter in Birmingham.
  • resurgence can be driven by government led schemes and major sporting events (eg London 2012 Olympics and Commonwealth Games in Glasgow).
63
Q

Positive impact of urban resurgence?

A

Multiplier effect. The redevelopment sets up further improvements and attracts greater investment.

64
Q

2 negative impacts of urban resurgence?

A
  • greater pressures put on urban infrastructure so some residents may be displaced as house prices rise.
  • increasing inequity between the rich and poor.
65
Q

Cade study for ‘urban resurgence’?

A

The USA experience: New York, Boston, LA

66
Q

USA urban resurgence case study:

A

CAUSES OF DECLINE:
1950s onwards - huge population decline in urban areas as families moved to urban areas.
Accompanied by loss of manufacturing and retailing from downtown led to “dead heart” syndrome.

CAUSES OF RESURGENCE: began in 1990s
Period of sustained national economic growth leading to urban resurgence schemes
More attractive urban design
Young people remain in cities even when they start a family
Older people who had left, return to be closer to urban services

EVIDENCE OF RESURGENCE:
There’s a 1.5 mile long section of elevated rail track which had been abandoned (then redeveloped in 2000s to an elevated park and railway).
It’s now a site for artistic commissions and cultural events, attracting 5m visitors yearly. Boosted local shops, cafes.
Real estate development has been encouraged in this area.

67
Q

Define ribbon development.

A

Urban growth and the expansion of the suburbs, along the routes into the CBD.

68
Q

Define urban sprawl.

A

The spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside. This happens if there are no planning controls.

69
Q

Define green belt.

A

An area of land, usually surrounded by an urban area, wheee development is restricted. It was a strategy to prevent urban sprawl.

70
Q

Why were green belts established?

A

As a strategy to prevent urban sprawl.

71
Q

Define rural urban fringe.

A

The area beyond the built up area of a town or city.

72
Q

Define suburbanised village.

A

A village, in commuting distance, which receives newcomers as a result of counter-urbanisation.
It shares some of the characteristics with the suburbs.

73
Q

Define deindustrialisation.

A

The loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector which occurred in the U.K. In the second half of the 20th century.

74
Q

Define gentrification.

A

The process by which individuals, or groups of individuals but and renovate properties often in more rundown areas. This is fuelled by wealthier individuals.

75
Q

What’s the “dead heart syndrome”?

A

The result of loss of manufacturing and retailing from the downtown areas of a city which leave a ‘dead heart’.

76
Q

In the industrial revolution, cities became known for particular types of industry. Give 3 examples.

A

Manchester - textiles
Sheffield - iron and steel
Glasgow - shipbuilding

77
Q

By the 1980s, many of the older industrial cities were experiencing severe economic problems associated with the decline of manufacturing. This is because of…

A
  1. Competition from abroad. Particularly the rapidly industrialising countries at the time (Taiwan, India, China).
  2. Reduced demand for traditional products. As new materials and technologies have been developed
  3. Mechanisation. Most firms can produce their goods more cheaply using machines rather than people.
78
Q

Deindustrialisation meant that manufacturing employment in the U.K. declined. How did this vary between cities?

A

Unemployment figures varied between figures, as they depended in the size of the city’s the composition of the urban economy and the actions of the local government.

Cities in manufacturing heartlands eg Manchester and Sheffield suffered more extensive job losses than cities with more diverse economies.

79
Q

How did deindustrialisation affect inner cities?

A

In inner cities, many types of workplace were most likely to be closed (eg old plants with the oldest production techniques, lowest productivity, most ionised workforce).
Inner cities also lacked suitable land for expanding of existing manufacturing.

New investment was now focussed on the edge of urban areas and more rural areas.

80
Q

The decline in the manufacturing industry in the late 20th century was accompanied by…

A

The rise of the service economy in urban areas.

81
Q

The decline in manufacturing employment in the late 20th century was accompanied by the rise of the service economy in urban areas. What does the service economy include?

A
  • tertiary activities. Eg financial services (eg banking, insurance), retailing, leisure transport, education.
  • quaternary activities. Where knowledge and ideas are the main output eg advertising, computer programming, software design.
82
Q

What fuels the service sector?

A

Population growth.

83
Q

Population growth fuels the service sector. But it has also grown because:

A
  • financial service are needed to support manufacturing industries which are still important in many cities
  • as societies become more technologically sophisticated they need a larger range of specialised behaviours to keep them running
  • as societies become wealthier they demand more leisure and retail services
84
Q

The growth in the service sector has somewhat reduced unemployment caused by deindustrialisation. But several problems still exist:

A
  • many service jobs are part time or temporary
  • the number of service jobs has not always made up for the loss of manufacturing
  • many of those who lost jobs through deindustrialisation have continued to suffer long-term unemployment
  • inner city locations have been avoided by service industries and newer manufacturing companies leading to continued inner city decline
85
Q

Economic impacts of deindustrialisation on urban areas?

A
  • loss of jobs and personal disposable incomes
  • closure of other businesses which support closing industries
  • loss of tax income to the local authority and potential decline in services
  • increase in demand for state benefits
  • loss of income in the service sector as a result of falling spending power of the local population
  • decline in property prices as out-migration occurs
  • deindustrialisation led to the de-multiplier effect in the urban areas affected
86
Q

Social impacts of deindustrialisation in urban areas?

A
  • increasing unemployment
  • higher levels of deprivation
  • out-migration of population, usually those who are more qualified and more prosperous
  • higher levels of crime, family breakdown, alcohol and drug abuse
  • loss of confidence and moral in local population
87
Q

Environmental impacts of deindustrialisation on urban areas?

A
  • derelict land and buildings
  • long term pollution of land from dirty industries eg dye works and iron foundries remain a problem because there’s no money for land remediation
  • deteriorating infrastructure
  • reduced maintenance of local housing caused by lower personal and local authority incomes
  • (positive) reductions in noise, land, water pollution and reduced traffic congestion.
88
Q

Define decentralisation.

A

The movement of population and industry from the urban centre to outlying areas.

This term may encompass the processes of suburbanisation and counter urbanisation.

89
Q

Define de-multiplier effect.

A

When a withdrawal of income or investment leads to the closure of an activity (e.g. factory).
The loss of jobs and income for the workers means less money is spent in the economy, usually giving rise to more job and income losses in a downward spiral.

90
Q

Define quaternary sector

A

The sector of the economy where knowledge or ideas are the main output.

Eg advertising, computer programming, software design.

91
Q

Define service / tertiary sector.

A

The sector of the economy concerned with providing services.

Eg financial services, retail, transport, education, leisure, health.

92
Q

Define world city.

A

There are cities which have great influence on a global scale because of their financial status and worldwide commercial power.

These cities house the headquarters of many TNCs, are centres of world finance and provide international consumer services.

NY, London, Tokyo have traditionally been at the tip of the global hierarchy, but are now being joined by Beijing, Shanghai and Mumbai.

93
Q

Which 3 cities have traditionally been at the top of the global hierarchy (world cities)?

A

NY, London, Tokyo

94
Q

3 up and coming world cities, catching up to the top 3?

A

Beijing, Shanghai and Mumbai.

95
Q

Define urban policy.

A

Strategies chosen by local or central government to manage the development of urban areas and to manage urban problems.

96
Q

Since the 1980s in the UK, what has been the key element of urban policy?

A

Regeneration.

97
Q

Early strategies of urban policy focused on a top down economic regeneration. What does this mean?

A

The decision to undertake projects or developments is made by a central authority such as government with little or no consultation with the local people whom it may affect.

98
Q

Later strategies on urban policy adopt a more holistic approach and focussed on bottom up regeneration. What does this mean?

A

When local people are consulted and supported in making decisions to undertake projects or developments that meet one or more of their specific needs.

99
Q

Define regeneration.

A

Policies directed at tackling social, environmental, economical and physical problems within urban areas.

100
Q

What have the 3 urban policies been in the UK since 1979?

A
  • 1979 - 1991: property led initiatives and creation of entrepreneurial culture
  • 1991 - 1997: partnership schemes and competition led policies
  • 1997 - 2000s: area based initiatives
101
Q

Details of property led initiatives 1979 - 1991 as an urban policy.

A
  • greater emphasis on the role of the private sector to regenerate inner city areas.
  • coalition boards were set up with people from the local business community
  • boards were encouraged to spend money on buying land, building infrastructure and marketing to attract private investment
102
Q

Details of partnership schemes 1991 - 1997 as an urban policy.

A
  • greater focus on local leadership and partnership between the private sector, local communities, voluntary sector and local authority
  • strategies focused on tacking social, economic and environmental problems in run down areas os the city which now included peripheral estates
103
Q

Details of area based initiatives 1997 - 2000s as an urban policy.

A
  • many strategies focused on narrowing the gap in key social and economic indicators between the most deprived neighbourhoods and the rest of the country
  • local authorities were set targets to improve levels of healthy education and employment opportunities
  • funding was allocated to assist in delivering government objectives.
104
Q

Example of property led initiatives 1979 - 1991 as urban policy.

A

Enterprise Zones, Urban Development Corporations

105
Q

Example of partnership schemes 1991 - 1997 as an urban policy.

A

City Challenge, City Pride

106
Q

Example of are based initiative 1997 - 2000s as an urban policy.

A

City Challenge, National Neighbourhood Reneewal Strategies.

107
Q

What’s the future of urban policy?

A

Greater devolution of powers to English cities, similar to the type granted to Greater Manchester in 2014.
Some feel this would lead to more effective place based urban policies.

108
Q

Define devolution.

A

The transfer of power to a lower level, especially by central government to local/regional administration.

109
Q

The regeneration policy: Urban Development Corporations were part of the Property Led Initiatives urban policy. Evaluate the successes and failures.

A

SUCCESS:

  • effective in attracting new businesses to run down areas thus importing the environment of UDC areas.
  • by the mid 1990s, they had attracted £12bn in private sector investment and created 190,000 jobs

FAILURE:

  • didn’t tackle social problems.
  • local people complained that they had little involvement in the process
  • in the London Docklands, locals did not benefit from the new housing and jobs created.
110
Q

The regeneration policy: City Challenge was part of the partnership schemes. Evaluate the successes and failures of this urban policy.

A

SUCCESS:

  • it gave equal importance to buildings, people and values
  • improved 40,000 houses
  • created 53,000 jobs
  • reclaimed 4000ha of derelict land

FAILURE:

  • resources were thinly spread ove large areas
  • money was lost preparing bids by local authorities who did not win funding
111
Q

The regeneration policy: New Deal for Communities were part of the ‘area based initiatives’. Evaluate the successes and failures of this urban policy.

A

SUCCESS:

  • evidence found that gaps with national and local authority had narrowed
  • NDC areas had seen improvements in 32 of the 36 core indicators including health, crime, community etc.

FAILURE:

  • the NDC strategy covered delivered greater place related outcomes than people related outcome
  • little net change for education and worklessness

g: cue (14 decks)

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