crime mid-term review Flashcards
CSI Effect
The CSI effect is the exaggerated portrayal of forensic science in crime-related TV shows
It influences public perception, leading people to expect more forensic evidence in real cases
also affects criminal behaviour, with offenders trying to cover their tracks more effectively
Crime rate
It is used to measure to level of crime in a society
Crime rates refer to the number of crimes reported per 100,000 people
Crime rates may not always reflect the true level of crime due to unreported crimes
Dark figure of crime:
The dark figure of crime refers to crimes that go unreported or are never recorded in official statistics
Reasons of underreporting:
Fear of retaliation
Lack of trust in the police
Belief that the crime is too minor
This means official crime rates may be lower than the actual number of crimes committed
Attrition in the criminal justice system
Attrition is the process where cases filtered out as they move through the criminal justice system
Not all crimes lead to charges, trails, or convictions
Common points where cases drop out:
Not reported to the police
Insufficient evidence to proceed
Plea deals reducing charges
Acquittals or dismissed cases
Victim Impact statement
A victim Impact statement allows crime victims (or their families) to describe the emotional, physical, and financial effects of the crime
Given before sentencing to help the judge understand the impact of the crime
Can influence sentencing but cannot determine the outcome
Primary & Secondary Victims
Primary victims: Direct victims who experience the crime firsthand (e.g., an assault victim).
Secondary Victims: People affected indirectly (e.g., family members, witnesses, or friends of victim)
Canadian Bill of Rights - Four key rights
The canadian bill of rights (1960) was canada’s first federal human rights law
Four key rights:
Right to life, liberty, and security of the person
Freedom of religion, speech, assembly, and association
Right to a fair hearing (due process)
Right to equality before the law
Five Models of criminal justice
Crime Control Model - Focuses on efficiency, speed, and punishment. Prioritizes convicting criminals and protecting society.
Due Process Model - Focuses on protecting the rights of the accused. Emphasizes fair trials and legal protections.
Welfare Model - Views crime as a social issue and focuses on rehabilitation rather than punishment.
Community Change Model - Emphasizes crime prevention through social reforms, like better education, jobs, and housing.
Restorative justice Model - Aims to repair harm by involving victims, offenders, and the community in conflict resolution.
Nova Scotia Mass shooting (April 18-19,2020)
One of Canada’s deadliest mass shooting, resulting in 22 deaths across multiple locations in Nova Scotia
Issues in the response:
Delayed public alert
Suspect Dressed as a Police Officer
Poor communication
Gun control issues
RCMP accountability
Police officer workplace homicides
Police officers have the second highest workplace homicide rate, only behind workers in taxi services
Reasons for high risk
Confronting armed criminals
Responding to dangerous situations (e.g., domestic disputes, active shooters)
Being targeted for violence
First Organized police force in english history
Developed by Sir Robert peel in 1829
Established the London Metropolitan Police, introducing modern policing principles (Peelian Principles)
His model emphasized:
Crime prevention instead of punishment
Police accountability to the public
Professional training for officers
First Federal police force in canada
Dominion Police (1868) was Canada’s first federal police force
Responsibilities
Protecting government buildings
Investigating counterfeiting
Border security
Merged with the North-west Mounted police (NWMP) in 1920 to form the royal canadian mounted police (RCMP)
Three tiers of policing in canada
Federal Level (RCMP)
Handles national security, federal law enforcement, and international investigations.
Provides contract policing for provinces without their own police forces.
Provincial/Regional Level
Includes forces like the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) and Sûreté du Québec (SQ).
Covers highway patrol, rural policing, and provincial laws.
Municipal Level
City police forces (e.g., Toronto Police Service, Vancouver Police Department).
Focuses on local crime, traffic enforcement, and community policing.
Which police force has the most officers?
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) has the most officers in Canada, with over 20,000 members.
Largest municipal police force: Toronto Police Service (TPS) (~5,500 officers).
Largest provincial police force: Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) (~8,000 officers).
Only three provinces have provincial police
Most provinces rely on the RCMP for provincial policing, but three provinces have their own police forces:
Ontario – Ontario Provincial Police (OPP)
Quebec – Sûreté du Québec (SQ)
Newfoundland & Labrador – Royal Newfoundland Constabulary (RNC)
First nations policing policy
Introduced in 1991 to provide Indigenous communities with culturally appropriate policing.
Self-administered police services allow First Nations to operate their own police forces (e.g., Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service).
Community Tripartite Agreements (CTA): RCMP provides dedicated policing to First Nations under contracts.
Challenges: Underfunding, lack of resources, officer retention issues.
Transit Police
Responsible for policing railway and transit systems (subways, buses, trains).
Examples:
Metro Vancouver Transit Police (MVTP) – Only armed transit police service in Canada.
GO Transit Safety Officers (Ontario) – Provide security for GO trains and buses.
CN & CP Railway Police – Handle crime on railway properties.
SARA model
The SARA Model is a problem-solving method used in policing:
Scanning – Identify and define the problem (e.g., increase in car thefts).
Analysis – Gather data to understand causes and patterns.
Response – Develop and implement strategies to address the issue.
Assessment – Evaluate if the response was effective and adjust as needed.
Recruitment and Standards of Policing
General Requirements to Become a Police Officer in Canada:
Minimum age: Usually 18 or 19 years old.
Education: High school diploma (some forces prefer post-secondary education).
Physical fitness – Must pass physical tests (e.g., beep test, obstacle course).
Background check – Criminal record and psychological evaluation.
Police Academy Training – RCMP Depot (Regina), Ontario Police College, or municipal training programs.
The Fourth Pillar to Crime Reduction
The fourth pillar of crime reduction is crime prevention.
It works alongside police, courts, and corrections to reduce crime before it happens.
Can be both proactive (preventing crime) and reactive (responding after crime occurs).
Six main categories of crime prevention strategies
Crime Prevention Through Social Development (CPSD)
Focuses on addressing root causes of crime (e.g., poverty, lack of education).
Involves youth programs, education, mental health support.
Situational Crime Prevention
Reduces opportunities for crime through security measures (e.g., CCTV, better lighting, locked doors).
Based on the idea that making crime harder to commit lowers crime rates.
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)
Uses urban planning and architecture to reduce crime.
Example: Well-lit streets and open spaces make it harder for criminals to act unnoticed.
Community-Based Crime Prevention
Involves citizen participation in crime reduction (e.g., Neighbourhood Watch).
Strengthens social bonds and trust between police and communities.
Police-Based Crime Prevention
Focuses on patrolling, intelligence gathering, and intervention programs.
Examples: School Resource Officers, proactive policing.
Diversion Programs
Redirects offenders away from the criminal justice system into rehabilitation programs.
Example: Youth diversion programs for first-time offenders.
Protective Factors
Protective factors are positive conditions or influences that reduce the likelihood of criminal behaviour
Examples
Strong family support
Good education and job opportunities
Positive peer influences
Access to mental health and social services
Predictive policing
Uses data analysis and AI to predict where crimes are likely to happen
Helps police allocate resources efficiently and prevent crime before it occurs
Controversies: Can lead to racial profiling and reinforce systemic biases
Digitalism
The integration of technology into daily life and crime prevention.
Examples:
Surveillance systems (CCTV, facial recognition).
Cybercrime monitoring (tracking fraud, hacking, and online threats).
Social media analysis to detect criminal activities.
Three main risk factors for criminal behaviour
Individual Risk Factors – Mental health issues, substance abuse, aggression.
Social Risk Factors – Peer pressure, family instability, lack of education.
Environmental Risk Factors – High-crime neighborhoods, lack of job opportunities.
Not Encouraged by police
Certain vigilante actions and self-policing are not encouraged by law enforcement.
Examples:
Taking the law into one’s own hands (e.g., citizen’s arrests without legal authority).
Using excessive force in self-defense beyond legal limits.
Refusing to report crime (instead of cooperating with police).
Gun Violence is increasing
Gun violence in Canada has been rising, particularly in urban areas.
Often linked to gang activity, illegal firearms trafficking, and socio-economic factors.
Handguns are responsible for most firearm-related homicides.
Red Flag Laws
Red flag laws allow authorities to temporarily remove firearms from individuals deemed a risk to themselves or others.
Typically involve:
A court order (Emergency Risk Protection Order – ERPO).
Requests from family members, police, or medical professionals.
Temporary firearm seizures to prevent suicides, domestic violence, or mass shootings.
Ban on Assault Weapons - Challenges
In 2020, Canada banned 1,500+ assault-style firearms.
Issues with enforcement:
Existing weapons still in circulation (grandfathered owners).
Smuggling from the U.S. – Many illegal firearms come from cross-border trafficking.
Criminals rarely use legal assault weapons in violent crimes – handguns are more common.
Information (legal definition)
Information is a written complaint sworn under oath by a citizen or police officer.
It formally alleges that the accused committed a specific criminal offense.
Used to initiate a legal proceeding in court.
Arrest without a warrant (Reasonable Grounds)
A police officer can make an arrest without a warrant if they have reasonable grounds to believe:
A person has committed or is about to commit an indictable offense.
They find the person committing a criminal offense.
A warrant of arrest is already in force for the individual.
Section 8 of the canadian charter of rights and freedom
Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.
Police need a warrant to search a person, home, or belongings unless exigent circumstances apply.
Section 9
Protects individuals from arbitrary detention or imprisonment.
Police cannot randomly stop, search, or detain people without legal justification.
Custodial vs. non-custodial interviews
Custodial Interview:
Conducted when the suspect is under arrest or in police custody.
The suspect must be informed of their rights (e.g., right to a lawyer).
Non-Custodial Interview:
The person is not under arrest and can leave at any time.
No obligation for police to read rights to counsel, but statements can still be used in court.
Exigent Circumstances
Emergency situations where police can act without a warrant to prevent:
Imminent harm (e.g., stopping an active shooter).
Destruction of evidence (e.g., flushing drugs).
Escape of a suspect (e.g., chasing someone into a home).
Mr.big technique
Undercover police sting operation where officers pose as criminals to gain a suspect’s trust and confession.
Controversial because it can lead to false confessions.
Used in high-profile murder cases, but courts have imposed strict guidelines on its use.
Electronic surveillance & warrants
Police must obtain a warrant to conduct electronic surveillance (e.g., wiretapping, GPS tracking).
Exceptions: Exigent circumstances or national security investigations.
Plain view doctrine
Police can seize evidence without a warrant if:
The evidence is in plain sight.
The officer is lawfully present (e.g., traffic stop, legal search).
It is immediately apparent that the item is evidence of a crime.
Code Of hammurabi
One of the earliest recorded legal codes (Ancient Babylon, ~1754 BCE).
“An eye for an eye” philosophy – focused on retributive justice.
Established laws on crime, property, family, and trade.
Introduced the presumption of innocence (“the accused must provide evidence of their innocence”).
R v. Accused - what does “R” stand for?
In Canadian criminal cases, “R” stands for “Rex” (King) or “Regina” (Queen), depending on the reigning monarch.
Example: R v. Smith → “The Crown (government) vs. Smith”.
The Crown prosecutes crimes on behalf of society.
Mens Rea vs. Actus Reus
These are the two essential elements of a crime:
Mens Rea (Guilty Mind)
The intent or knowledge of wrongdoing.
Example: Premeditated murder (planned and intentional).
Actus Reus (Guilty Act)
The physical act of committing the crime.
Example: Pulling the trigger in a shooting.
Both must be present for a person to be guilty of most crimes.
Exception: Strict liability offences only require actus reus.
Regulatory offences
Laws that outline government rules for public welfare and safety.
Usually do not require mens rea (intent).
Examples:
Traffic violations (speeding, running a red light).
Environmental laws (illegal dumping).
Health and safety regulations (workplace safety violations).
Wilful Blindness
Deliberately ignoring the truth to avoid legal responsibility.
Example: Buying a stolen laptop at a suspiciously low price and not asking questions
Conspiracy
An agreement between two or more people to commit a crime.
The crime doesn’t have to be completed – planning alone can be illegal.
Example: Two people planning a bank robbery, even if they never go through with it.
