CRAM Flashcards
What is sensitivity?
sensitivity is the ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external environment and to make appropriate responses.
What is excretion?
The removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism and substances in excess of requirements
What is egestion?
The passing out of undigested food through the anus
What is nutrition?
The taking in of materials for energy, growth and development.
What is a species?
A group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring
What is the binomial system?
An internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of an organism is divided into two parts showing the genus and species
What is classification?
The way biologists group organisms to determine things like their family groups and species, evolutionary relationships and study their morphology and specific characteristics
What is the modern method of classification?
Base sequences in DNA. Groups of organisms that share a more recent ancestor have more similar base sequences meaning they are more closely related
What are the 5 main kingdoms?
- Animals
- Plants
- Fungi
- Prokaryotes
- Protoctists
What are the main features of reptiles?
- Cold blooded
- Have dry scaly skin
- Lay eggs on dry land
- (Snake, crocodile, lizards)
What are the main features of fish?
- Have scales on their bodies
- Have gills for breathing
- Cold blooded
- (Shark, tuna, salmon)
What are the main features of amphibians?
- Have moist, slimy skin
- Cold blooded
- Lay eggs in water
- (Frog, newt, salamander)
What are the main features of birds?
- Have feathers and wings
- Have beaks and lay eggs
- Warm blooded
- (Eagle, swan, sparrow)
What are the main features of mammals?
- Have fur or hair
- Feed young on milk
- Warm blooded
- external ears
- (Cow, human, bear)
What are the main groups of arthropods?
Arachnids, crustaceans, insects and myriapods
What is an arthropod?
All invertebrates with jointed legs, segmented bodies and a hard exoskeleton made of chitin
What is a virus’s structure?
Genetic material (RNA or DNA) inside a protein coat
What are the features of flowering plants?
- Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds
- Seeds are produced inside the ovary found at the base of the flower
- Can be divided into two groups: monocotyledons and dicotyledons
What are the features of monocotyledons?
- Contain petals in a multiple of 3
- Leaves have parallel leaf veins
- Vascular bodies are randomly arranged
- Fibrous root system
What are the features of dicotyledons?
- Contains petals in multiples of 4 or 5
- Leaves have branched veins
- Vascular bodies arranged in rings
- Roots are taproot
What are the main features of insects?
Three body sections and six legs
What are the main features of arachnids?
Two body sections and eight legs
What are the main features of crustaceans?
two body sections and at least ten legs
What are the main features of myriapods?
Many segments with lots of legs
What is the function of the nucleus?
Contains the genetic material (DNA) which controls the activities of the cell
What is the function of ribosomes?
- Can be free floating in the cytoplasm or associated with the ER
- Site of protein synthesis (makes proteins)
What is the function of chloroplasts?
- Contains green chlorophyll pigment (to absorb light energy) and the enzymes needed for photosynthesis
- Uses light energy to produce glucose as a food source
What is the function of a vacuole?
- Plant cells have a large central vacuole
- Animal cells have several small vacuoles or absent
- Important for storage of compounds, water and nutrients
- Maintains turgidity
What are the features of bacteria?
Cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, cell wall (made of peptidoglycan), circular loop of DNA
Some may also have plasmids (small loops of DNA) and flagella (thread like structures that allow them to move in liquids)
What are specialised cells?
Specialised cells are those which have developed certain characteristics in order to perform particular functions. These differences are controlled by genes in the nucleus
Why do cells need to divide?
to help your body grow and repair itself
How are new cells produced?
The division of existing cells
What’s the function of a ciliated cell?
Movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi
What’s the function of a neuron?
Sending and recieving neurotransmitters
What’s the function of a red blood cell?
Transport of oxygen
What are the adaptations of a ciliated cell?
- Extensions of the cytoplasm at the surface of the cell form hair-like structures called cilia which beat to move mucus and trapped particles up the throat
What are the adaptations of nerve cells?
- Long so nerves can run to and from different parts of the body to central nervous systems
- The cell has extensions and branches, so that it can communicate with other nerve cells, muscles and glands
- The axon (extension of cytoplasm away from the cell body) is covered with a fatty sheath, which insulates the nerve cell and speeds up the nerve impulse
What are the adaptations of red blood cells?
- Biconcave disc shape increases surface area for more efficient diffusion of oxygen
- Contains haemoglobin which joins with oxygen to transport it
- Contains no nucleus to increase amount of space available for haemoglobin inside cell
What are the adaptations of a sperm cell?
- The head contains the genetic material for reproduction in a haploid nucleus (nucleus with half the normal number of chromosomes)
- The acrosome in the head contains digestive enzymes so that a sperm can penetrate an egg
- The mid-piece is packed with mitochondria to release energy needed to swim and fertilise the egg
- The tail enables the sperm to swim
What are the adaptations of an ovum?
- Contains a lot of cytoplasm which has nutrients for the growth of the early embryo
- Haploid nucleus contains the genetic material for fertilisation
- Cell membrane changes after fertilisation by a single sperm so no more sperm can enter
What is the function of root hair cells?
Absorbtion of water and mineral ions from water
What is the function of the xylem vessel?
Conduction of water through the plant; support of the plant
What are the adaptations of a root hair cell?
- Root hair increases surface area of cell to ensure maximum absorption of water and mineral ions
- Walls are thin enough to ensure that water moves through quickly
- No chloroplasts present
What is the function of a palisade mesophyll cell?
Photosynthesis
What are the adaptations of the xylem vessel?
- No top and bottom walls between xylem vessels so there is a continuous column of water running through them
- Cells are dead without organelles or cytoplasm to allow free passage of water
- Their walls become thickened with a substance called lignin which means they are able to help support the plant
What are the adaptations of the palisade mesophyll cell?
- Column shaped to maximize absorption of sunlight and fit as many in a layer under the epidermis of the leaf as possible
- Contains many chloroplasts for maximum photosynthesis
What’s the first level of organisation in an organism? describe it.
Cell. Basic functional and structural units in a living organism
What’s the second level of organisation in an organism? describe it.
Tissue. Groups of similar cells working together to carry out a specific function
What’s the third level of organisation in an organism? describe it.
Organs. Groups of tissue working together to carry out a specific function.
What’s the fourth level of organisation in an organism? describe it.
Organ system. Groups of organs working together to carry out a specific function.
How many micrometers is a millimeter?
1000μm
What is diffusion?
The net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration (i.e. down a concentration gradient), as a result of their random movement requiring no energy to do so
Where does the energy for diffusion come from?
the kinetic energy of random movement of
molecules and ions
What are the factors that affect diffusion?
- Concentration gradient (the larger it is, the faster the rate of diffusion)
- Temperature (More energy associated with the particle at higher temperatures means faster rate of diffusion)
- Surface area (The larger the surface area in contact between the two regions the faster the diffusion)
- Distance (The larger the distance, the longer time to diffuse)
What is the importance of the diffusion of gases and solutes in living organisms?
- Getting raw materials for respiration or photosynthesis
- Removing waste products
- Importing or exporting products
Name some situations where water is important as a solvent in organisms?
- Dissolved substances can be easily transported around organisms
- Digested food molecules in the alimentary canal dissolve in water to be absorbed into the blood (for transport to cells
- Toxic substances can dissolve in water to be (easily) excreted in urine
- Water is also an important part of the cytoplasm and plays a role in ensuring metabolic reactions can happen as necessary in cells
How does water move into cells?
By osmosis through the partially permeable membrane
What is osmosis?
the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water
potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable membrane
What’s active transport?
the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration (i.e. against a concentration gradient), using energy from respiration
What’s the importance of active transport?
Active transport is vital process for the movement of molecules or ions across membranes. Including:
- uptake of glucose by epithelial cells in the villi of the small intestine and by kidney tubules in the nephron
- uptake of ions from soil water by root hair cells in plants
What is turgor pressure?
The pressure within cells that pushes at the cell wall or membrane, more water inside the cell means higher turgor pressure
Why is turgor pressure important to plants?
So plants stay upright and have exposure to sunlight
What happens to a plant cell in a hypertonic solution?
There’s a net movement of water out of the cell, causing a reduction in turgor pressure. This first makes the cell flaccid then after some time the cell membrane begins to pull back from the cell wall and the cell becomes plasmolysed.
What happens to a plant cell in a hypotonic solution?
There’s a net movement of water into the cell, causing an increase in turgor pressure and the cell membrane to push against the cell wall. This makes the cell turgid
What happens to a plant cell in an isotonic solution?
There is no net movement of water so the cell stays the same
What large molecules are made from glucose?
Cellulose- plants use to make cell wall
Starch- plants use to store energy
Glycogen- animals use to store energy in the liver
What is the function of glucose?
To produce energy from respiration. Plants transport sucrose which is then converted into glucose and used for respiration
What is the function of protein?
It’s used to make new proteins and enzymes, used for growth and repair of cells and used to make antibodies which are used to kill bacteria and viruses
What is the structure of DNA?
Two strands coiled together to form a double helix. The backbone is made of sugar and phosphate while on the inside the double helix contains chemicals called bases which determine the code of the DNA. The bonds between pairs of bases hold the
strands together
Why are enzymes important in all living
organisms?
they maintain reaction speeds of all metabolic reactions (all the reactions that keep an organism alive) at a rate that can sustain life. Without enzymes, reactions are so slow to occur, that the cells would die from not being able to do life processes
Explain enzyme action with reference to: active site, enzyme-substrate complex, substrate and product
Enzymes are specific to one particular substrate as the active site of the enzyme, where the substrate attaches, is a complementary shape to the substrate. They fit together like a lock (enzyme) and key (substrate). When the substrate moves into the enzyme’s active site they become known as the enzyme-substrate complex. After the reaction has occurred, the products leave the enzyme’s active site as they no longer fit it and the enzyme remains unchanged and takes on another substrate.
When do enzyme reactions occur?
When the substrate and enzyme collide
Explain the effect of changes in temperature on enzyme activity in terms of kinetic energy, shape and fit, frequency of effective collisions and denaturation
At lower temperatures, there are fewer successful collisions because the enzymes and the substrates have less kinetic energy. When the temperature is increasing, the enzymes and substrates have more kinetic energy resulting in more successful collisions. At the optimum temperature, the enzymes work the fastest they can. Above the optimum temperature, there are more collisions but the active site becomes denatured by the high temperature and the active site and substrate are no longer complementary so there are fewer successful collisions
What is photosynthesis?
the process by which plants synthesise carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light
What is chlorophyll?
The protein found within chloroplasts that catalyses the reaction, it’s also what causes the plant to be green.
What does chlorophyll do?
transfers energy from light into energy in chemicals, for the synthesis of carbohydrates
What are the 5 uses and storage of the carbohydrates made in photosynthesis?
- Glucose is commonly stored in plants as starch (as an energy source)
- Glucose can be used to form cellulose to build cell walls
- Glucose can be used in respiration to provide energy
- Glucose can be converted to sucrose and transported through phloem vessels from source to sink
- Glucose can be converted into nectar and used to attract insects for pollination
Function of magnesium in plants
It’s needed to make chlorophyll
Function of nitrate in plants
A source of nitrogen needed to make amino acids (build proteins)
Deficiency of magnesium in plants
Yellowing between the veins of leaves (known as chlorosis) due to lack of chlorophyll production
Deficiency of nitrate in plants
Stunted growth, leaves (usually near growing tip) start to turn yellow, old leaves start to dry out
What is a limiting factor?
something that is in short supply that restricts a process. When a process depends on two or more variables, the rate of that process is determined by the factor that is in shortest supply.
How does light intensity affect the rate of photosynthesis?
- Themore lighta plant receives, thefaster the rateof photosynthesis
- At low light intensities, increasing the intensity will initially increase the rate of photosynthesis. At a certain point, increasing the light intensity stops increasing the rate. The rate becomes constant regardless of how much light intensity increases as something else is limiting the rate
How does carbon dioxide concentration affect the rate of photosynthesis?
- Carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis
- This means themore carbon dioxidethat is present, thefaster the reactioncan occur
- This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the rate from increasing further because it is now in short supply
How does temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis?
- As temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis increases as the reaction iscontrolled by enzymes
- However, as the reaction is controlled by enzymes, this trend only continues up to the optimum temperature beyond there the enzymes begin todenatureand the rate of reactiondecreases
What is the net effect of the carbon dioxide in plants during the day and night?
During the day, especially when the sun is bright,plants are photosynthesising at a faster rate than they are respiring, so there is anet intake of carbon dioxide and a net output of oxygen. During the night, plants respire more than they photosynthesise so there is a net release of carbon dioxide
What does yellow and orange colour of hydrogen carbonate indicator mean?
Highest and high concentration of carbon dioxide, respectively. More respiration>photosynthesis (lower pH, more acidic)
What does red colour of hydrogen carbonate indicator mean?
Concentration of carbon dioxide is atmospheric level. Photosynthesis=respiration
What does purple and magenta colour of hydrogen carbonate indicator mean?
Lowest and low concentration of carbon dioxide, respectively. More photosynthesis>respiration (higher pH, more alkaline)
What does upper epidermis do in a leaf?
Offer protection but thin and transparent to allow light to enter the palisade mesophyll layer
What does palisade mesophyll do in a leaf?
Column shaped cells tightly packed together with many chloroplasts to absorb more light, maximising photosynthesis
What does a waxy cuticle do in a leaf?
Protective layer on top of the leaf that prevents water from evaporating. It also allows light to pass through whilst protecting the leaf’s surface
What does spongey mesophyll do in a leaf?
Irregular shape, fewer chloroplasts and contain internal air spaces to increase the surface area to volume ratio for the diffusion of gases
What do guard cells do in a leaf?
Absorbs and loses water to open and close the stomata to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out
What do the stomata do in a leaf?
Where gas exchange takes place; opens during the day and closes during the night. Evaporation of water also takes place here. In most plants they are located on the underside of the lead to reduce water loss.
What does the vascular bundle do in a leaf?
Contains xylem and phloem to transport substances to and from the leaf. Xylem transports water into the leaf for mesophyll cells to use in photosynthesis and for transpiration from the stomata. Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids around the plant
Why does a large surface area adapt a leaf for photosynthesis?
Increases surface area for the diffusion of carbon dioxide and absorption of light for photosynthesis
Why does the leaf being thin adapt a leaf for photosynthesis?
Allows carbon dioxide to diffuse to palisade mesophyll cells quickly
How does chlorophyll adapt a leaf for photosynthesis?
Absorbs light energy so photosynthesis can take place
How do the epidermal cells adapt a leaf for photosynthesis?
They are thin and transparent which allows more light to reach the palisade cells
How does the spongey mesophyll layer adapt a leaf for photosynthesis?
Airspaces allow carbon dioxide to diffuse through the leaf, increasing the surface area
How does the vascular bundle adapt a leaf for photosynthesis?
Thick cell walls of the tissue in the bundles help to support the stem and leaf
What is a balanced diet?
A balanced diet has the correct amount of each group of nutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and water). We need a balanced diet to stay healthy.
What are the 7 main food groups?
Carbohydrates
Protein
Fats
Dietary fibre
Vitamins (C and D)
Minerals (Iron and calcium)
Water
Function and sources of carbohydrates
Function: Source of energy, nutrient for producing energy
Sources: Bread, cereals, pasta, rice, potatoes
Function and sources of protein
Function: Growth (getting bigger by growing new cells), repair (replacing damaged or worn out cells)
Sources: Meat, fish, eggs, beans, nuts
Function and sources of lipids
Function: Insulation and energy storage, making cell membranes of cells
Sources: Butter, oil, cheese, margarine
Function and sources of dietary fibre
Function: Ensures food moves through intestines at the correct rate
Sources: Vegetables, whole grains
Function and sources of vitamins
Function: Needed in small quantities to maintain health
Sources: Fruit and vegetables
Function and sources of vitamin C
Function: Used in creating connective tissue, blood vessels, bones and cartilage. It’s required for wound healing.
Sources: Citrus fruits (lemon, lime, orange), strawberries, kiwifruit
Function and sources of vitamin D
Function: Helps the body to absorb calcium. Needed to maintain strong, healthy bones and teeth
Sources: Main source is sunlight but can also be gained from fatty fish, egg yolks and dairy products
Function and sources of calcium
Function: Needed for strong bones and teeth and maintaining blood clotting
Sources: Milk, cheese, eggs, fish with bones
Function and sources of iron
Function: Required for making haemoglobin in red blood cells which is used to bind oxygen
Sources: Red meat, whole grains, leafy green vegetables
Function and sources of water
Function: Acts as a solvent for cellular reactions, circulatory system and digestion system, helps to maintain body temperature
Sources: Water, juice, milk, fruits and vegetables
Main organs in digestive system
mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine (duodenum and ileum), large intestine (colon, rectum,
anus), pancreas,
liver and gall bladder
Function of mouth
The mouth is where mechanical digestion takes place. The teeth grind the food into small pieces to increase its surface area to volume ratio. The salivary glands release saliva in the mouth. The saliva contains amylase enzymes which break down starch into maltose. Another enzyme maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. At the back of the mouth, the food is made into a ball called bolus by the tongue and lubricated in saliva so it can be swallowed easily.
What is the function of the oesophagus?
The tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. The bolus goes here after being swallowed and is pushed down the oesophagus by wave-like muscle contractions called peristalsis.
What is the function of the stomach?
The main organ where food is digested as it does both mechanical and chemical digestion. Food is mechanically digested by muscles that churn the food. Protease enzymes start to chemically digest proteins and hydrochloric acid is added to kill bacteria in food and provide the optimum pH for the enzymes to work.
What is the function of the small intestine?
Where nutrients are absorbed. The first section is the duodenum where food goes when it goes out of the stomach. This is where bile and digestive enzymes are added to further digest the food. At this point the pH of the small intestine is slightly alkaline at 8-9 because bile is basic. The second section is called the ileum and it’s where the absorption of digested food molecules takes place. The ileum is long and lined with villi to increase the surface area over which absorption takes place.
What is the function of the large intestine?
Mainly indigestible food and water enter the large intestine. Here water is absorbed back into the body to produce faeces. Faeces are stored in the rectum. The anus is the opening at the end of the digestive system and is where the faeces are removed.
What is the function of the salivary glands?
Release saliva in the mouth. The saliva contains amylase enzymes which break down starch into maltose.
What is the function of the pancreas?
Produces the enzymes involved in digestion: amylase, protease and lipase. It secretes these enzymes in an alkaline fluid into the duodenum to raise the pH of food coming out of the stomach. It also produces insulin and glycogen which are hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.
What is the function of the liver?
Produces bile which emulsifies fats (breaking large droplets into smaller droplets, mechanical digestion) helping to digest them. Bile contains lipase and neutralises the pH. Amino acids that aren’t used to make protein are broken down here which produces urea
What is the function of the gall bladder?
Stores bile to release into the duodenum as required.
What is ingestion and where in the body does it happen?
the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body
Part of body: mouth (eating the food)
What is digestion and where in the body does it happen?
What is digestion and where in the body does it happen?
What is absorption and where in the body does it happen?
the movement of nutrients from the intestines into the blood
Part of body: small intestine (ileum) and large intestine
What is assimilation and where in the body does it happen?
uptake and use of nutrients by cells
Part of body: small intestine
What is physical digestion?
the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the food molecules
What do the processes that happen in physical digestion help to do?
increase the surface areaof food for the action ofenzymesduring chemical digestion
Where physical digestion occurs
chewingaction of theteeth, thechurningaction of thestomachand theemulsification of fatsbybilein the duodenum
How does the stomach do physical digestion?
The stomach lining containsmuscleswhich contract tophysically squeezeand mix the food with the strong digestive juices that are present (also known as “stomachchurning”)
How does bile do physical digestion?
Bile is used to emulsify (break down large fat molecules into smaller ones) fats and oils to increase the surface area for chemical digestion
What do incisors do?
Work to bring the food into the mouth and cut it
What do canines do?
Cut and tear food up
What do premolars do?
Help incisors and canines grind and mix food while chewing
What is chemical digestion?
the breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules
What is the role of chemical digestion?
to produce small soluble molecules that can be absorbed
What does amylase do in digestion?
- Breaks down starch to simple reducing sugars
- Amylasesare produced in themouthand thepancreas(secreted into theduodenum)
What does protease do in digestion?
- Break down protein to amino acids
- Proteases are in the stomach and small intestine (with the enzymes in the small intestine having been produced in the pancreas)
What does lipase do in digestion?
- Breaks down fats and oils to fatty acids and glycerol
- Lipaseenzymes are produced in thepancreasand secreted into theduodenum
Function of hydrochloric acid
- The stomach produces several fluids which together are known asgastric juice. One of the fluids produced ishydrochloric acid
- The hydrochloric acid is used in killing harmful microorganisms in food and providing an acidic pH for optimum enzyme activity
- The low pH kills bacteria in food that we have ingested as itdenatures the enzymes in their cells, meaning they cannot carry out any cell reactions to maintain life
What happens in the digestion of starch?
- Amylaseis secreted into the alimentary canal in themouthand theduodenum(from the pancreas) and digestsstarch to maltose(a disaccharide)
- Maltoseis digested by the enzymemaltaseintoglucoseon the membranes of the epithelium lining of the small intestine
What is bile?
Bile is an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acidic mixture of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum from the stomach, to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action
What happens in the digestion of protein?
Protein digestion takes place in the stomach and duodenum with two main enzymes produced:
- Pepsinis produced in thestomach and breaks down protein in acidic conditions in the stomach (optimum pH of 3)
- Trypsinis produced in thepancreasand secreted into theduodenumwhere it breaks down protein inalkaline conditions (optimum pH of 8)
How is the small intestine adapted for its function?
- The ileum is adapted for absorption as it isvery longand has ahighly folded surface with millions of villi(tiny, finger like projections). These adaptations massivelyincrease the surface areaof the ileum, allowing absorption to take place faster and more efficiently. Microvillion the surface of the villus further increase surface area for faster absorption of nutrients.
- Wall of the villus isone cell thickmeaning that there is only a short distance for absorption to happen by diffusion and active transport
- Villus contains anetwork of blood capillariesthat transport glucose and amino acids away from the small intestine in the blood. Blood flows through the capillaries which maintains the concentration gradient leading to fast diffusion
- Lactealruns through the centre of the villus to transport fatty acids and glycerol away from the small intestine in the lymph
What is the function of xylem?
transport of water and mineral ions, and support (transports up from roots to leaves)
What is the function of phloem?
transport of sucrose and amino acids (transports in all directions)
Where is xylem and phloem in vascular bundle?
cells on top or the bigger cells are xylem and cells on bottom or smaller cells are phloem
What are the adaptations of xylem vessels?
- Cells joined end to end withno cross wallsto form a long continuous tube
- Cells have no cell contents
- Thick cell walls that are strengthened by lignin
What are root hair cells and what are their function?
- Root hair cells are the ones that have finger-like projections coming out of them
- They grow between soil particles and absorb water and minerals from the soil
- Water enters the root hair cells byosmosis
- The large surface area of root hairs increases the uptake of water and mineral ions because it increases the rate of osmosis/diffusion
What is the path of water in a plant?
Water moves through a root hair by osmosis. It then travels by osmosis through the cortex, from cell to cell, until eventually it reaches the xylem vessels in the middle of the root. These transport it all the way up through stem and into the mesophyll layer of leaves and evaporates out through stomata into the atmosphere
What is transpiration?
the loss of water vapour from leaves
Why does transpiration happen?
Transpiration happens because water evaporates from the surfaces of the mesophyll cells into the air spaces and then diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata as water vapour
How does the large surface area in the spongey mesophyll layer increase transpiration?
The many interconnecting air spaces between the mesophyll cells and the stomata creates a large internal surface area. This increases the rate of transpiration as it allows water vapour to move freely and easily meaning evaporation can happen rapidly when stomata are open. The size and number of stomata on a leaf’s surface also affect this process. A larger number of stomata or larger stomata can potentially increase the rate of water vapour loss due to increased opportunities for diffusion.
How and why does wilting happen?
- Wilting happens when all the cells of the plant aren’t full of water, so the strength of the cell walls can’t support the plant making it start to collapse. Wilting reduces surface area and conserves water.
- Plants wilt because more water evaporates from a plant than can be absorbed from the soil, the plant cells become flaccid causing the plant to wilt.
What is translocation?
the movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem from sources to sinks
Why does the source and sink of a plant change?
- Transport in the phloemgoes in many different directionsdepending on the stage of development of the plant or the time of year; however dissolved food is always transported from thesource(where it’s made) tosink(where it’s stored or used)
- Duringwinter, when many plants have no leaves, the phloem tubes may transport dissolved sucrose and amino acids from the storage organs to other parts of the plant so that respiration can continue. During agrowth period(eg during the spring), the storage organs (eg roots) would be the source and the many growing areas of the plant would be the sinks. After the plant has grown(usually during the summer), the leaves are photosynthesizing and producing large quantities of sugars; so they become the source and the roots become the sinks – storing sucrose as starch until it is needed again
How does single circulation work in fishes?
They have a two-chambered heart comprising an atrium and a ventricle. In fishes, the heart pumps out the deoxygenated blood which undergoes oxygenation in the gills. In gills, blood receives oxygen and releases carbon dioxide, a process facilitated by the thin walls of gill capillaries allowing efficient gas exchange. The oxygenated blood is then passed to the body parts from where the deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart.
What is the circulatory system?
The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood
What is double and single circulation?
Double circulation means that the blood flows through two circuits – one low-pressure circuit and one high-pressure circuit.
Single circulation is when the blood passes through a single circuit
What is the double circulation of a mammal?
Mammals have a four chamber heart (two atria and two ventricles) and double circulation. Double circulation means that the blood flows through two circuits – one low-pressure circuit and one high-pressure circuit. The right low-pressure circuit is when the deoxygenated blood travels from the heart, to the lungs where it becomes oxygenated, and back. This is also known as the pulmonary circuit. The left high-pressure circuit, or systemic circuit, is when oxygenated blood flows from the heart to the rest of the body, and back. This is higher pressure because the blood has to travel further, so the heart applies a greater force on this blood, this is why the left side of the heart has a thicker muscle wall.
What are the advantages of double circulation?
- Blood travelling through the small capillaries in the lungsloses a lot of pressurethat was given to it by the pumping of the heart, meaning itcannot travel as fast. By returning the blood to the heart after going through the lungs itspressure can be raised againbefore sending it to the body, meaningcellscan be supplied with theoxygen and glucosethey need for respirationfaster and more frequently
- Double circulation also helps keep the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate and prevents their mixing – this allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body.
Why is single circulation inefficient?
Single circulation is inefficient because there lower blood pressure after passing through gills, leading to a slower rate of flow to body tissues and less efficient due to the mixing of blood and the single loop system resulting in reduced oxygenation efficiency.
Why do ventricles have thicker muscle walls than the atria?
they are pumping blood out of the heart and so need to generatea higher pressure
What does the septum do?
separates the two sides of the heart and soprevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
What is the function of valves?
to prevent backflow of blood