Content of all studies

Question 1

Bartlett (1932)

Answer 1

Aim: To investigate how memory is influenced by cultural factors and schemas.
Method: British participants read “The War of the Ghosts” (American) and then recalled it after varying intervals (short and long).
IV: Time interval between reading and recall.
DV: Accuracy of recall (number of details remembered and distortions).
Results: Participants altered the story to fit their cultural backgrounds, showing memory is reconstructive; details were omitted or changed to align with their experiences.

Question 2

Rogers and Kesner

Answer 2

Aim: Investigate the role of acetylcholine in memory formation.

Method: Administered scopolamine (an acetylcholine inhibitor) to rats before navigating a maze.

Results: Rats given scopolamine made more errors in the maze.

Conclusion: Acetylcholine is important for the consolidation of spatial memories.

Question 3

Brown and Kulik (1977)

Answer 3

Aim: To investigate how surprising and personally significant events trigger flashbulb memories.
Method: 80 participants (40 Black and 40 White American men) completed a questionnaire about significant events, like the deaths of JFK and MLK.
Results: 90% remembered details about the event day; accuracy varied by personal relevance: 75% of Black participants recalled MLK’s death vs. 33% of White participants.
Conclusion: Suggested a biological mechanism for flashbulb memories but didn’t investigate it further; noted limitations included retrospective data and a small, specific sample affecting causality and generalisability.

Question 4

Caspi et al (2003)

Answer 4

Aim: Investigate gene-environment interaction (G x E) for the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT) in relation to depression.

Method: Sample of 847 New Zealanders (age 26), divided into three groups based on 5-HTT alleles:

Group 1: Two short alleles
Group 2: One short, one long allele
Group 3: Two long alleles Participants completed a “Stressful Life Events” questionnaire and were assessed for depression.
Results:

Individuals with one or more short alleles showed more depression symptoms and suicidal ideation in response to stressful events.
The effect was strongest with increased stressors; inheritance of the gene alone was not sufficient for depression.
Conclusion: Interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental stressors increases the likelihood of developing depression.

Question 5

Draganski (2004)

Answer 5

Aim: To investigate how learning a new skill (juggling) affects brain structure.
Method: Participants (jugglers and non-jugglers) underwent initial MRI scans for baseline brain structure. Jugglers learned a three-ball routine and had a second MRI after mastering it, followed by a third MRI three months later (after stopping juggling).
Results: Jugglers showed increased grey matter in the mid-temporal area, linked to visual memory, after learning to juggle. This increase diminished after they stopped practicing. Non-jugglers showed no significant changes.
Conclusion: Brain changes were associated with the practice of juggling, indicating that skills can lead to structural brain modifications.

Question 6

Englich and Mussweiler (2001)

Answer 6

Aim: To investigate how suggested sentences from a prosecutor influence judges’ sentencing decisions.
Method: 19 young trial judges were divided into two groups: one received a low anchor (2 months) and the other a high anchor (34 months). Participants recommended a sentence after reviewing the case.
Results: Judges given the low anchor recommended an average of 18.78 months, while those with the high anchor recommended 28.70 months.
Conclusion: The study demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between anchor values and sentencing, supporting the existence of anchoring bias. However, the small sample size and the specific demographic of judges limit the generalisability of the findings to broader populations.

Question 7

HM: Milner (1966)

Answer 7

Aim: To examine the effects of surgery that removed parts of HM’s medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, to treat epilepsy.
Results: HM developed severe anterograde amnesia, losing the ability to form new long-term memories but retaining childhood memories and motor skills.
Conclusion: Brenda Milner’s extensive research demonstrated the critical role of the hippocampus in converting short-term memories into long-term ones, significantly enhancing the understanding of memory localisation in the brain.

Question 8

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Answer 8

Aim: To investigate how the phrasing of questions influences eyewitness memory.
Method: Participants watched video clips of car accidents and were asked to estimate the speed of the cars using different verbs (e.g., “smashed,” “collided,” “bumped,” “hit,” “contacted”).
Results: The verb used significantly affected speed estimates, with stronger verbs like “smashed” leading to higher estimates.
Conclusion: The study demonstrated the malleability of memory, suggesting that leading questions can distort eyewitness testimony.

Question 9

Maguire (2000)

Answer 9

Aim: To investigate the brain structure of London taxi drivers, known for their extensive knowledge of the city’s streets.
Method: Conducted a single-blind study comparing brain scans of right-handed London taxi drivers to right-handed males who were not taxi drivers.
Results: Found that taxi drivers had significantly larger posterior hippocampi and smaller anterior hippocampi compared to control subjects. The volume of the right posterior hippocampus correlated with the duration of taxi driving experience. No significant differences were observed in other brain areas.
Conclusion: The study supports the idea of neuroplasticity, suggesting that the posterior hippocampus is involved in recalling spatial information, as taxi drivers rely on this knowledge daily.

Question 10

McGaugh and Cahill (1995)

Answer 10

Aim: To investigate the impact of emotional arousal on memory retention.

Method: Participants viewed a series of slides paired with either a neutral story or an emotionally intense story.

Results: Participants exposed to the emotionally charged story recalled more details about the slides. Emotional arousal was found to enhance memory retention, influenced by stress hormones like adrenaline.

Conclusion: The study highlights the role of emotional arousal in strengthening memory consolidation.

Question 11

Newcomer et al (1999)

Answer 11

Aim: To examine the effects of elevated cortisol on verbal declarative memory.

Method:

Participants: Healthy employees and students at Washington University Medical Center.

Design: Double-blind experiment with three conditions:
- High cortisol: 160 mg/day for 4 days
- Low cortisol: 40 mg/day
- Placebo

Task: Participants recalled prose paragraphs at baseline, one day after, and four days after treatment.

Results:
- The high cortisol group showed impaired recall.
- Memory performance normalized after treatment cessation.
- No significant differences between low-dose and placebo groups.

Conclusion: High cortisol levels negatively affect recall, indicating a link between stress hormones and memory performance.The high cortisol group showed impaired recall.
Memory performance normalized after treatment cessation.
No significant differences between low-dose and placebo groups.
Conclusion: High cortisol levels negatively affect recall, indicating a link between stress hormones and memory performance.

Question 12

Rogers and Kesner (2003)

Answer 12

Aim: To investigate the role of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in memory formation.

Method: Rats were trained to navigate a maze, then injected with either scopolamine (which blocks acetylcholine receptors) or a placebo.

Results: Rats given scopolamine took longer and made more mistakes in the maze compared to the control group.

Conclusion: Acetylcholine is crucial for the formation and retrieval of spatial memory.

Question 13

Rosenzweig et al (1972)

Answer 13

Aim: To study the effects of environmental enrichment on brain plasticity in rats.

Method: Rats were raised in either enriched or impoverished environments.

Results: Rats in enriched environments had thicker cerebral cortices and greater brain weight compared to those in impoverished environments.

Conclusion: Stimulation from enriched environments positively affects brain development and neural growth.

Question 14

Sparrow (2011)

Answer 14

Definition: The tendency to forget information easily found online, affecting declarative memory. Digital amnesia.

Study 1:

Participants: 60 Harvard undergraduates.
Design: 2 x 2 independent samples (Save vs. Erase; Remember vs. Not Asked to Remember).
Procedure: Participants typed trivia facts, with half saving and half erasing their entries. Then recalled facts.
Results:
No significant difference in recall based on memory prompts.
Participants who thought information would be saved recalled less.
Study 2:

Participants: 34 Columbia undergraduates.
Procedure: Typed trivia facts, each linked to a folder (unknown to participants). Then recalled facts and folder names.
Results:
Better recall for folder names than for facts.
Suggests reliance on external memory reduces effort to remember information.

Conclusion: Confidence in online information storage leads to reduced encoding and retrieval effort for important information.

Question 15

Tversky and Kahnemann (1974)

Answer 15

Aim: To examine how anchoring effects influence numerical estimations.

Method: High-school students were divided into two groups:

Ascending group estimated
1×2×3×4×5×6×7×8 in 5 seconds.
Descending group estimated
8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1 in 5 seconds.
Results:

Median estimate for the ascending group: 512
Median estimate for the descending group: 2250
Actual product: 40,320
Conclusion: Participants’ estimates were influenced by the anchoring effect, with the ascending group providing lower estimates and the descending group providing higher estimates based on their starting point.

Question 16

Tversky and Kahnemann (1986)

Answer 16

Aim: To test the influence of positive and negative framing on decision making.

Method: US undergraduates were presented with a hypothetical scenario involving a viral disease expected to kill 600 people. They chose between two programs in two conditions:

Condition 1 (Positive Framing):
Programme A: “200 people will be saved.”
Programme B: “1/3 probability of saving 600 people.”
Results: 72% chose A, 28% chose B.
Condition 2 (Negative Framing):
Programme C: “400 people will die.”
Programme D: “1/3 probability nobody will die, 2/3 probability 600 will die.”
Results: 22% chose C, 78% chose D.
Conclusion: Participants were more likely to select a certain outcome when options were positively framed, but took risks with negatively framed options to avoid loss, despite the options being objectively the same.

Question 17

Weissman et al (2005)

Answer 17

Aim: To explore the genetic basis of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) through a longitudinal family study.

Method:

20-year study involving 161 families (grandchildren, parents, and grandparents).
Focused on high-risk (depressed) and low-risk (non-depressed) backgrounds.
Participants interviewed four times; clinicians were blind to past diagnoses.
Employed researcher triangulation for enhanced validity.
Results:

Grandchildren with two generations of depression had a higher likelihood of developing psychiatric disorders, particularly anxiety, by age 12.
Increased risk if both grandparents and parents had depression; no significant impact if only parents were depressed.

Question 18

Zhou (2014)

Answer 18

Aim: Investigate if androstadienone and estratetraenol communicate gender information as human sex pheromones.

Method: Examined effects on gender perception of point-light walkers in heterosexual and homosexual men and women, using a controlled design with 24 participants per group.

Results:

Androstadienone: Biased heterosexual women and gay men to see walkers as more masculine.
Estratetraenol: Biased heterosexual men to see walkers as more feminine.
No significant effects on heterosexual men or lesbian women; estratetraenol had no significant impact on bisexual and lesbian women.
Conclusion: Androstadienone signals masculinity to heterosexual females and gay males, while estratetraenol signals femininity to heterosexual males.

Question 19

Blacker et al (2014)

Answer 19

Aim: Investigate if action video game training enhances visual working memory capacity.

Participants: Two groups:

Action video game group: Trained on games like “Call of Duty.”
Non-action video game group: Trained on games like “The Sims.”
Method:

Training Duration: About 30 hours over several weeks.
Visual Working Memory Task: Tasks to recall visual stimuli details before and after training.
Findings:

Action video game group showed significant improvement in visual working memory, especially with complex information.
Conclusion: Action video games may enhance cognitive functions like visual working memory by improving attentional control and filtering irrelevant information.

Question 20

Brewer and Treyens (1981)

Answer 20

Aim: Investigate how schema influences the encoding and retrieval of episodic memory.

Participants: 86 university psychology students.

Procedure:

Participants waited in a room designed to resemble an office, containing typical and some incongruent items (e.g., a skull).
After 35 seconds, they were asked to recall what they remembered.
Participants completed tasks: written recall, drawing, and verbal recognition.
Tasks:

Written Recall: Describe objects, focusing on details.
Drawing Recall: Draw the room layout and objects.
Verbal Recognition: Identify whether listed objects were present.
Findings:

Participants recalled more schema-consistent items and fewer incongruent items.
They altered details to fit their schema (e.g., misremembering table shape).
Recognition showed higher identification of schema-consistent but absent items.
Conclusion: Schema significantly influences encoding and retrieval in episodic memory.

Question 21

Buss (1989)

Answer 21

Aim: Investigate mate selection preferences across 37 cultures using questionnaires from over 10,000 respondents.

Key Findings:

In 36 of 37 cultures, women prioritized financial prospects more than men.
All cultures showed men preferred younger mates, while women preferred older mates.
In 23 cultures, men rated chastity as more important than women did.
Cultural Variations:

USA: Love ranked first.
Iran: Love ranked third; high importance on education, intelligence, ambition, and chastity.
Nigeria: Love ranked fourth; emphasis on good health, neatness, and desire for home and children.
China: Love ranked sixth; importance on good health, chastity, and domestic skills.
South Africa (Zulu): Love ranked seventh; focus on emotional stability, maturity, and dependability.
Conclusion: The study suggests that mate selection preferences have universal patterns, shaped by evolutionary pressures, but also highlights significant cultural differences.

Question 22

Cases et al (1995)

Answer 22

Aim:
Investigate the genetic origins of aggression using knockout mice lacking the MAOA gene.

Procedure:

Created genetically modified mice with the MAOA gene deleted.
Observed behaviors between days 11 and 16, noting signs of low MAOA, such as frantic running and violent shaking during sleep.
Conducted “resident-intruder” tests to assess aggressive responses.
Findings:

MAOA-deficient mice exhibited offensive aggression, adopting threatening postures and engaging in aggressive behavior.
Autopsies revealed increased levels of serotonin (6-9 times higher than controls) and alterations in neurotransmitter levels.
Conclusion:
Lack of MAOA leads to a predisposition toward aggressive behavior in mice, suggesting similar mechanisms may exist in humans.

Question 23

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

Answer 23

Aim:

Aim:
To prove the existence of separate memory structures like Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory.

Study 1:

Sample: 240 Army enlisted men.
Aim: Investigate the impact of time intervals on the primacy effect in memory recall.
Procedure: Participants listened to 20-word lists under different conditions (e.g., varied time intervals, words read once or twice).
Findings: Longer intervals improved recall, especially for words at the beginning (primacy effect). The recency effect remained stable, as those words were still in short-term memory.
Study 2:

Sample: 46 Army enlisted men.
Aim: Focus specifically on the recency effect in memory recall.
Procedure: Participants recalled words immediately or after a 10/30-second distraction task.
Findings: Immediate recall showed both primacy and recency effects. The recency effect diminished after 10 seconds and was absent after 30 seconds of distraction.

Question 24

Hirst et al (2008)

Answer 24

Aim: Investigate the correlation between media coverage and the accuracy of memories related to the Challenger disaster and the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

Participants: Individuals who experienced the events.

Procedure:

Analyzed memories of participants regarding both tragedies.
Assessed the amount of media coverage at the time of each event.
Findings:

Explored how extensive media coverage influenced the accuracy and clarity of people’s memories.
Aimed to determine if greater media exposure led to more accurate or distorted recollections.
Conclusion: The study sought to enhance understanding of memory formation in the context of high-profile national tragedies.

Question 25

Kendler et al (2006)

Answer 25

Aim: Investigate the heritability of major depression, gender differences in heritability, and changes in genetic and environmental factors over time.

Sample: 15,493 complete twin pairs from the Swedish Twin Registry, with verified zygosity.

Procedure:

Conducted telephone interviews (March 1998 - January 2003) using modified DSM-IV criteria to assess lifetime major depression.
Collected data on shared and individual-specific environments.
Results:

Higher concordance rates for major depression in women compared to men.
Monozygotic twins exhibited significantly higher concordance rates than dizygotic twins.
Estimated heritability of major depression was consistent with previous research.
No significant differences in genetic and environmental factors across cohorts (birth years 1900-1958).
Conclusion: Major depression shows higher heritability in women, with some sex-specific genetic risk factors. The findings reinforce the reliability of twin studies in understanding major depression.

Question 26

Landry and Bartling (2011)

Answer 26

Aim: Investigate how articulatory suppression affects recall of phonologically dissimilar letters in the context of the Working Memory Model.

Participants: 34 undergraduate psychology students.

Procedure:

Participants were divided into an experimental group (performing articulatory suppression) and a control group.
Both groups recalled ten lists of letters.
The control group recalled without interruption, while the experimental group repeated numbers during the recall task.
Results:

The control group demonstrated significantly higher recall accuracy compared to the experimental group.
Statistical analysis confirmed a significant difference.
Conclusion: Articulatory suppression overloads the phonological loop, impairing recall, consistent with the Working Memory Model.

Question 27

Meaney (1988)

Answer 27

Aim: To explore how glucocorticoids (stress hormones) affect memory in rats.

Method:

Groups: Rats were divided into:
Treatment Group: Handled daily for three weeks to simulate maternal grooming.
Control Group: Removed from mothers but not handled.
Memory Test: At two years old, rats were placed in a pool to find a hidden platform, and their routes were tracked.
Findings:

Control rats showed significant memory deficits and hippocampal neuron loss.
Treated rats exhibited better memory and less cognitive decline.
Conclusion: Early grooming activates genes that improve stress response and memory, demonstrating an epigenetic link. Chronic stress hormones can lead to cognitive decline, relevant to conditions like Alzheimer’s.

Question 28

Sapolsky et al (1990)

Answer 28

Objective: To investigate the impact of social hierarchy on cardiovascular health in a troop of baboons.

Method:

Design: Longitudinal and naturalistic study conducted over 25 years in Western Kenya.
Approach: Included observations, physiological tests, and experiments.
Findings:

Baboons at the bottom of the social hierarchy experienced chronic stress, leading to elevated levels of glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol).
Long-term stress exposure correlated with negative health outcomes, including:
Increased heart disease
Reduced fertility
Decreased life expectancy
Conclusion: The study highlights the significant role of social stress in influencing health, particularly through hormonal responses associated with hierarchical positioning.

Question 29

Schmelkov et al (2010)

Answer 29

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Question 30

Troster and Beatty (1989)

Answer 30

Acetylcholine and Memory Study
Objective: Examine acetylcholine’s role in memory formation and retrieval.

Sample: 13 men aged 31 to 59, screened for health.

Method:

Conditions: Participants received a placebo or scopolamine (inhibitor) (0.5 mg or 0.8 mg), with 48-hour intervals.
Tests:
Free Recall: Immediate and delayed recall of a list of words.
Map Test: Memorization and location of cities on a map over four trials.
Remote Memory: Recognition of images of famous faces and events.
Findings:

Scopolamine impaired new memory encoding, but long-term recall remained intact.
Acetylcholine is essential for encoding semantic and spatial memories.
The study confirms acetylcholine’s critical role in memory encoding.

Question 31

Wedekind (1995)

Answer 31

Objective: Investigate whether Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) influences mate choice.

Sample: 49 female and 44 male students from the University of Bern, with varied MHC types. Participants were from different courses, minimizing prior acquaintance. Women’s contraceptive use was noted.

Method:

T-Shirt Protocol: Men wore T-shirts for two nights, using only unscented products. They avoided deodorants, alcohol, and certain foods to control for odor.
Odor Ranking: Women ranked the smell of seven T-shirts in a controlled setting, assessed for intensity, pleasantness, and sexiness. Three shirts had similar MHC to the women, three had dissimilar MHC, and one was unworn.
Findings: Women rated male odors as more pleasant when MHC was dissimilar to their own. This preference shifted for women on oral contraceptives, suggesting MHC influences mate choice.

Question 32

Antonova

Answer 32

Aim:
To examine the effect of scopolamine on hippocampal activity during spatial memory tasks in humans.

Method:

Sample: 20 healthy male adults (mean age 28).
Design: Double-blind, repeated measures.
Procedure: Participants injected with either scopolamine or placebo, then performed the “Arena task” while undergoing fMRI to assess hippocampal activation.
Results:

Scopolamine significantly reduced hippocampal activation compared to placebo during spatial navigation tasks.
Conclusion:
The findings support that acetylcholine is critical for the encoding of spatial memories in humans, mirroring results observed in animal studies.