conservatism

Question 1

Freedan’s view of ideology

Answer 1

1. cognitive,
   * The cognitive component of ideology deals with the knowledge or understanding of social, political, and economic phenomena
2. Normative
   * The normative component of ideology addresses ethical and moral values, such as justice, equality, and freedom.
3. expressive components
   * concerned with emotions, attitudes, and symbols that help express one’s beliefs.

Question 2

Freedan’s defintion of ideology

Answer 2

a comprehensive belief system that influences political action and focuses on specific aspects of social, economic, and political structures.

ideologies are not static, fixed, or universal, but are shaped by historical and social contexts, and subject to change over time

Question 3

Freedan - competition between ideologies

Answer 3

interdependence with political language, their capacity to provide a sense of identity and belonging to political actors, and their tendency to generate competing and conflicting interpretations of reality.

Question 4

competition in ideology

Answer 4

• Freedan distinguishes between core and peripheral beliefs within ideologies, and suggests that conflicts within and between ideologies often arise from disagreements over which beliefs are core and which are peripheral.

Question 5

freedan - political theory

Answer 5

refers to a systematic study of political ideas and concepts.

Question 6

Freedan - ideologies and theory

Answer 6

political ideologies and political theory are interdependent, and an understanding of one is necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the other

Question 7

Generic conservative view of human nature

Answer 7

• we’re inherently bad and that we need to be redeemed. Based off Adam and Eve – we need authority
• Individual reason – were limited – not that smart. So we naturally need hierarchy

Question 8

Generic Conservatism- gradual change/ organic society in Conservatism

Answer 8

• Growing and natural- society is a breathing, developing thing – can’t radically change anything as this will kill society. The body politic like in Hobbes- arms, legs, breathing… can’t stop chopping limbs off, will harm body itself + the idea of community – strong bonds, everyone has a distinct role
• Orderly change – slow, gradual change- we are not as smart as we think we are, so if quick change we will get it wrong + we can only rely on collective wisdom of history and tradition – change to be right has to be a product of the many not the few not just one person.

Question 9

Generic Conservatism-Hobbes as a Conservative

Answer 9

Hobbes is best known for his work “Leviathan,” in which he argues for the necessity of a strong central authority to maintain order and prevent the chaos of the state of nature. His theory of the social contract posits that individuals willingly surrender some of their freedoms to a sovereign ruler or government in exchange for protection and security.

hn - “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short” in the state of nature, suggests a belief in the innate selfishness and aggressiveness of human beings.

Question 10

Generic Conservatism- why change is still wanted in Conservatism

Answer 10

• They do want change though albeit slow- society grows + if we value the wisdom of generations we learn from institutions and so if we can’t make any changes, how do we change institutions at all, as the things that hold all the knowledge of past generations that we learn from– they must change to absorb the knowledge of each period.

Question 11

Generic Conservatism-liberty vs liberties

Answer 11

• Concrete liberty – support liberties rather than liberty eg right to go to work without having bricks thrown at you, right to buy council house. They’re in favour of certain kinds of liberty not liberty in general.

Question 12

Generic Conservatism - rule of law

Answer 12

you must have rule - Conservatives are scared of the mob, must submit + people are imperfect so the rulers are imperfect too and so laws not people must rule.

Question 13

generic conservatism - central planning

Answer 13

• we are not that smart so we cannot have a centrally planned economy – let the economy look after itself because people will muck it up, they are stupid. Institutions handle and collect the knowledge and allocate resources+ incentive effect – required to get people to work and work hard.

a lot of people want a paternalistic state- not limited in social sphere.

• Some moralistic- stand on own two feet

Question 14

generic Conservatism - property

Answer 14

• Protects us from the state – if rely on state for a job, healthcare etc. our house is our protection. If we lived in state house we would be more exploited by them
• Hegelian – we need private property as that’s how we came to understand ourselves – Conservatives bridge this to say that this is what allows you to lead your own life and a fulfilling life.

Question 14

Generic conservative view and the nation

Answer 14

• The most important thing- gives us our history, identity etc. makes us who we are. Shared identity and language, nation building (Conservatives don’t necessarily support this but historically shows importance of the nation)

Question 15

generic conservatism - organic unity of nation

Answer 15

Conservatives often view the nation as an organic entity, characterized by a shared history, culture, traditions, and values that have evolved over time. The nation is seen as more than a collection of individuals but as a collective identity that binds people together and gives them a sense of belonging and solidarity.

Question 16

generic conservatism and patriotism for the nation

Answer 16

Nationalism, in the conservative context, often involves a belief in the superiority or uniqueness of one’s own nation and a desire to preserve its identity and sovereignty.

Question 17

generic Conservatism- cultural preservation and the nation

Answer 17

Conservatives often prioritize the preservation of the nation’s cultural heritage, including its language, customs, traditions, and institutions. They may be wary of rapid cultural change or external influences that could erode the nation’s distinctiveness or dilute its identity.

Question 18

generic conservatism and national sovereignty

Answer 18

Conservatives generally emphasize the importance of national sovereignty and self-determination, advocating for the independence and autonomy of the nation-state in domestic and international affairs. They may resist supranational institutions or agreements that encroach upon the nation’s sovereignty or undermine its ability to govern itself.

Question 19

Mueller- 3 core principles of conservatism

Answer 19

skepticism about human perfectibility, an emphasis on the importance of tradition and authority, and a belief in limited government

Question 20

Mueller- Conservatism as a response

Answer 20

• conservatism can be seen as a response to modernity and the challenges it presents to traditional social structures and institutions.

Question 21

Mueller- Conservatism as not monolithic

Answer 21

• Muller argues that conservatism is not monolithic and can take on different forms in different contexts
• Conservatism can be divided into three main categories: authoritarian, liberal, and reactionary

Question 22

Mueller- authoritarian conservatism

Answer 22

prioritizes order and control over individual rights and freedoms

Question 23

Mueller-liberal conservatism

Answer 23

emphasizes limited government and individual freedom, but also values tradition and authority

Question 24

Mueller- reactionary conservatism

Answer 24

seeks to restore a previous social order and is often associated with nativism and a rejection of modernity

Question 25

Scruton on what Conservatism is

Answer 25

• There are some clear ongoing elements of conservatism - e.g. aversion to revolution (Scruton)

Question 26

Scruton on revolution and conservatism

Answer 26

• can’t rush the process. Revolution is like killing a pregnant mother and ripping out the foetus.

Question 27

Scruton - Conservatism and freedom vs the state

Answer 27

• Conservatism argues that freedom, without proper institutions, lacks genuine social continuity and individual choice. The concept of freedom, cannot occupy a central place in conservative thinking… freedom is comprehensible as a social goal only when subordinate to something else, to an organization or arrangement which defines the individual aim. Hence to aim at freedom is at the same time to aim at the constraint which is its precondition.

o Thus, the value of individual liberty in conservatism is not absolute but is subordinate to the authority of established government.

Question 28

Scruton on Conservatism and tradition

Answer 28

• While conservatism is often described as a desire to conserve. Conservatism stems from the sense of belonging to a pre-existing social order, reflecting a society’s will to live and maintain continuity. The conservative instinct is founded in that feeling: it is the enactment of historical vitality, the individual’s sense of his society’s will to live.

Question 29

Scruton on change and Conservatism

Answer 29

• Societies are not just speechless organisms; they possess personality and will. Political aims should not be entirely predetermined but should evolve through participation and shared societal values

Question 30

Scruton on conservatism and power

Answer 30

• While conservatives aim to maintain social unity, they also need to pursue power to govern effectively. For conservatives, power is not merely a means to achieve abstract goals like social justice or freedom, but It is power to command and influence. The power which the politician seeks must be, a power that is accepted. It must be regarded by the people as not just power, but authority.

Question 31

Scruton on the individual and privacy

Answer 31

• Individual Fulfillment: Despite the emphasis on societal values and duties, individual satisfaction and the motive to participate in social life remain central. Individuals seek a realm of privacy to express their unique eccentricities.
• Right to Privacy: The English concept of the ‘right to privacy’ is highly valued, yet it’s contingent upon the protection provided by the state. Without a structured societal order, this right loses its meaning.
• Nature of Privacy: Anglo-Saxon privacy is not merely the absence of interference but is rooted in a well-defined public order. It’s a substantial concept that gains clarity from its boundaries.

Question 32

Scruton on public v private

Answer 32

• Public over Private: The conservative view of legitimacy prioritizes public interests over private ones, societal needs over individual desires, and duty over rights.

but still acknowledges importance of individual fulfilment and privacy - The challenge lies in striking a balance between individual freedoms and societal norms.

The state plays a crucial role in protecting individual rights, including the right to privacy. A well-defined public order provides the foundation for individual freedoms.

Question 33

Scruton - issue with political ideologies

Answer 33

All political ideologies, whether liberal, radical, or socialist, face challenges when it comes to translating their ideals into tangible policies. The promises of ‘natural rights’, ‘freedom’, ‘classless society’, ‘emancipation’, ‘social justice’, and ‘equality’ often resonate superficially but reveal complexities upon deeper examination.

Beneath the surface of political rhetoric lies a realm of pure opinion filled with doubt, deception, and concealed truths

Conservative thought critiques the promises of various political ideologies, arguing that their ideals often lack practicality and can be misleading to the general public.

Question 34

Scruton - three key concepts of Conservatism

Answer 34

: authority, allegiance and tradition

Question 35

Scruton - authority and legitimacy

Answer 35

• Authority is recognized and respected by people, representing legitimate or established power. - In either sense it can be granted, delegated, removed, respected, ignored, opposed. A society is not happy in which people cannot see that legitimacy enacted, in which they see only state coercion, and only established power.

Question 36

Scruton - critique of social contract

Answer 36

• conservative suspicion of the democratic process, which is that, however fair and free, it will always give precedence to the needs and desires of those who are choosing now, regardless of the needs and desires of those who are not yet with us or those who are already dead. – prioritises the present over past or future
  o This bias mirrors the limitations found in the social contract theory, which tends to prioritize present agreements over long-term commitments.

Question 37

Scruton - allegiance and Conservatism

Answer 37

• The primary object of allegiance is, as I argued, authority, which is to say power conceived as legitimate, and so bound by responsibility
  o allegiance to legitimate authority is seen as essential for maintaining social order, stability, and the rule of law. When individuals or groups recognize and respect the authority of governing institutions, they are more likely to comply with laws, participate in civic life, and contribute to the common good.
  o This form of authority is bound by responsibility, meaning that those who hold power have an obligation to use it wisely, fairly, and in the best interests of those they govern.

Question 38

Scruton on allegiance (definiton)

Answer 38

• Allegiance defines society and distinguishes it from a mere collection of individuals.

Question 39

Scruton on patriotism

Answer 39

• Patriotism, construed as the individual’s sense of identity with a social order, as a form of allegiance, is crucial but often misunderstood as nationalism.

Question 40

Scruton on tradition

Answer 40

• unlike the future, the past is known.
• Tradition gives history a purpose and connects individuals to something transcendent.
• Social knowledge, embodied in common law, manners, and conventions, is crucial for rational conduct and emerges from the collective experience and agreement over time.

Question 41

Scruton on continuity

Answer 41

• Tradition sets the forms of political life but must be continually re-created to remain relevant.
• Overall, the text argues that conservatism values the continuity of civil order, derived from a deep respect for authority, allegiance, and tradition.

Question 42

Scruton - the state and tradition

Answer 42

• They emphasize the importance of the constitution as an inherited principle of the state’s life.
• Conservatives believe that the legitimacy of the state stems from its origins rather than its outcomes.

Question 43

Scruton on welfare as a gift

Answer 43

• Conservatives see the state’s power as an embodiment of privilege rather than a source of gifts.
• Welfare, often claimed as a ‘right,’ is viewed by conservatives as a gift that doesn’t confer political status on the recipient.

Question 44

Scruton on universal welfare

Answer 44

• Conservatives are not fundamentally opposed to charity. While they acknowledge the necessity of some form of welfare state, they might be hesitant about the universal transfer of charitable responsibilities to the state- skeptical of the idea of ‘universal’ or ‘natural’ rights, questioning the political obligation to comply with them.
• Conservatives argue that when the state assumes the role of universal welfare provider, it promotes the illusion of ‘natural’ rights to essentials like home, health, wealth, and comfort.
• This shift erodes both individual initiative and the state’s authority. The state is seen less as an authoritative entity and more as a machine or a distribution center.

Question 45

Scruton on state as organic- how this links to admin of state

Answer 45

• For conservatives, the state is not merely a machine but an organism, and even more so, it is likened to a person. Viewing the state as an organism emphasizes its organic, evolving nature, suggesting that it should operate based on natural principles and historical continuity rather than mere administrative efficiency.

Question 46

Scruton - state and civil society

Answer 46

• The state and civil society are interconnected, and their separation would lead to the decline of both. - The will and self-image of the state are sustained by the continuity and health of the social organism. Similarly, the society depends on the established forms of state power for its stability and structure.

Question 47

Scruton - why is constitution important

Answer 47

• Constitution serves as a foundational guide, consists of rules and customs guiding, limiting, and authorizing power, primarily manifesting through law, rather than a rigid set of rules, adapting and evolving with the changing needs and values of the society it represents.

Question 48

Scruton - conservatism and democracy

Answer 48

• conservative suspicion of the democratic process, which is that, however fair and free, it will always give precedence to the needs and desires of those who are choosing now, regardless of the needs and desires of those who are not yet with us or those who are already dead. – prioritises the present over past or future
  o This bias mirrors the limitations found in the social contract theory, which tends to prioritize present agreements over long-term commitments.
• unregulated democracy can jeopardize the long-term well-being and continuity of a nation. To mitigate the temporal biases of democracy and ensure a more balanced representation of interests, procedural limitations should be implemented. These limitations aim to incorporate the voices and concerns of both past generations (the dead) and future ones (the unborn) into the political discourse and decision-making processes.

Question 49

Scruton on what the state should look like

Answer 49

• Monarchs, being born into their position and passing it on, represent cross-generational interests, limiting the transient desires of present voters. monarchs can possess flaws like any other individual eg canbe mad.
  o Monarchs, therefore, serve as a check or balance to the democratic process, ensuring that governance considers the long-term continuity and community values rather than short-term interests.
• Checks and balances -It is of course neither necessary nor desirable that the process of administration, the making of law and the execution of justice should all lie in the hands of a single body.

Question 50

Scruton - how can states promote freedom

Answer 50

• People have free will but Freedom is of no use to a being who lacks the concepts with which to value things. We must show how the agent values what he intends to do. true freedom is anchored in a broader social context and is inseparable from values, recognition, and a sense of belonging to a social order. Autonomy, in this view, is not a solitary endeavor but is deeply intertwined with societal structures, values, and practices that give meaning and purpose to individual actions and choices.
   Critique of liberal individualism

Question 51

Scruton - purpose of law according to Scruton

Answer 51

• law is not merely a set of rules or regulations but is a manifestation of the state’s intentions and objectives. Law serves as a tool through which the state exercises its authority and power within its domestic territory. Not just as a neutral set of guidelines but as a reflection of broader state objectives, values, and priorities.
• The law should aim to either foster or protect the trust and allegiance among members of society. Activities that promote social cohesion, trust, and allegiance should be encouraged or regulated favorably by the law.

Question 52

Scruton on law as a reflection of individual interests

Answer 52

• As the will of the state, the law must express the will of society.
• The idea of ‘individual freedom’ cannot suffice to generate laws that will be either acceptable to the normal conscience or compatible with normal administrative needs. Nor is it cogent to claim that law derive its legitimacy solely through preserving the individual from ‘harm’.
• Law should not merely represent the desires or whims of individuals but should reflect the combined aspirations, values, and principles of the entire society. The law becomes a shared tool that binds members of a society together, serving as a common ground that everyone can identify with.
• For a law to be legitimate and accepted, it must resonate with the shared beliefs and values of the community it governs

Question 53

Scruton - tradition of law

Answer 53

• Law should be grounded in the foundational experiences, traditions, and histories of the society it serves. While laws should evolve over time to address new challenges, they should maintain a connection to the historical and cultural roots of the community.

Question 54

Scruton on property

Answer 54

• Property isn’t just about greed or exploitation. It’s the primary means through which humans interact with nature, socialize objects, and create higher societal institutions. Through ownership, humans transform the resistance of nature into compliant objects. Property gives objects a social dimension, reflecting human relationships and allowing owners to see themselves as social beings.- Private property is linked to self-realisation
• any political view which regards the state as the protector of society must also demand the continuance of property.
• nothing wrong with the inheritance and accumulation of wealth.
• the conservative perspective on property extends beyond mere economic considerations. Property, in this view, is a fundamental institution that plays a crucial role in shaping societal relationships, fostering individual self-realization, and upholding the fabric of civil society.

Question 55

Scruton on the free market

Answer 55

• A free-market economy promotes national wealth and raises the standard of living. When individuals pursue their material well-being, they inadvertently contribute to the well-being of society as a whole.

Question 56

Scruton on alienated Labour

Answer 56

• alienation is a nuanced and multifaceted issue that cannot be solely attributed to private property or capitalist production. While they recognize its prevalence in modern society, they believe in addressing it incrementally through thoughtful policies
• Instead of advocating for radical societal restructuring, conservatives propose pragmatic policies that address specific instances or manifestations of alienation. This might include promoting community engagement, enhancing educational opportunities, or fostering a sense of purpose and belonging in the workplace.

Question 57

Scruton - limits of tradition

Answer 57

• The conservative view dismisses the idea of shaping modern politics solely based on old or outdated practices (antiquarianism).
  o Instead, the focus is on current forms of social participation that resonate with citizens and shape their values.

Question 58

Scruton on education

Answer 58

• education should encourage children to pursue knowledge and values for their intrinsic worth, rather than as means to an end. The value of education lies in its immediate and internal aims, such as personal growth, character development, and the pursuit of knowledge.

Question 59

Scruton on self- governing nature of institutions

Answer 59

• Conservative ideology stresses the importance of institutions being self-governing and focused on their inherent purposes. They caution against imposing external goals or controls on these institutions, as it can be detrimental to their integrity and efficacy.

Question 60

Scruton on power and authority

Answer 60

• Both power (ability to act or influence) and authority (right to command or give orders) are essential. While power can be delegated, authority must remain centralized to prevent weakening the state’s core. Ratification merges these two, allowing autonomous powers to be subservient to the state’s overarching authority

so bring autonomous institutions, tools of government- bring them under sovereign authority of the state without compromising their autonomy

• While the state should uphold the honour and distinction of its offices, it should also be wary of overreaching and undermining the autonomy of these institutions.

Question 61

Scruton - how autonomy of institutions fits in with welfare state

Answer 61

• The success of the welfare state and the state’s overall governance depends on flourishing autonomous institutions. The welfare state is essential but requires the support of professionals like doctors, lawyers, and teachers. To maintain the integrity and prestige of these professions, partly autonomous institutions like medical societies, inns of court, and private schools are vital. These institutions help sustain the welfare state by maintaining the professionals’ self-image and moral

Question 62

Scruton on primary role of the state

Answer 62

• The primary role of the state is to manage and oversee matters that private individuals or entities cannot effectively handle. This includes maintaining law and order, defending the realm, and providing a framework for individuals to pursue their ambitions harmoniously.

it shouldn’t directly participate in all enterprises or manufacturing. Its role is more about oversight and regulation rather than direct involvement. This approach allows for innovation, competition, and growth.

Question 63

Scruton on the nation state

Answer 63

• the pinnacle of state development is the nation state. This entity encompasses territory, language, administration, and established institutions. The nation state represents the extreme of self-consciousness for a state, valuing its possessions and principles enough to defend them with the lives of its citizens. The nation state is viewed as a powerful entity that brings both benefits and challenges. It can foster unity, shared identity, and mutual defense, but it can also lead to exclusion, conflict, and nationalism.
• Conservatism opposes laws and regulations imposed by external entities that don’t resonate with the nation’s intrinsic values.

Question 64

S.P Huntington - Conservatism as an ideology

Answer 64

• conservatism as a ‘positional’ ideology, differing from its rivals in not providing an ideal of how society ought to be organised.
• Other ideologies stand for something, conservatism warns against dismantling established institutions.

Question 65

Andreasson on defining Conservatism

Answer 65

• hard to define conservatism.
• What makes it unique is the vindication of inequality

Question 66

Andreasson - different Conservatism’s

Answer 66

o 1980s - ‘dry’ free-marketeers, ‘wet’ Tories who were not convinced of the benefits of an unfettered economy.
o Wet-dry dichotomy highlights conservative disagreement about the proper scope of government.
o Libertarian vs collectivist strands of conservatism - former arguing that the state should do little more than safeguard property rights, latter believe that government has responsibility to pursue a common purpose that transcends the sum of particular interests.

Question 67

Andreasson on Conservatism and society

Answer 67

they disagree

• Collectivist and libertarian strands tend to be associated with apparently incompatible conceptions of society.

o Collectivist - The community is an organic whole bound by a hierarchy of privileges and obligations in which wealth is held in trust for the common benefit, and where in consequence those with power have a responsibility to attend to the welfare of the mass of people.

o Libertarian - Society is a collection of self-interested individuals united by little beyond a common desire for security, and where wealth and prestige are the outcome of individual success.

Question 68

Andreasson on government and Conservatism

Answer 68

• Libertarian Conservatism Advocates for minimal government intervention, emphasizing individual freedom, free markets, and personal responsibility. In their view, excessive state planning and intervention can distort market mechanisms and lead to inefficiencies, ultimately harming economic growth and individual freedoms.
• Collectivist Conservatives: his group tends to be critical of efforts to emancipate the economy from political regulation. They see such attempts as potential pretexts for exploiting the poor or vulnerable sections of society. Their stance suggests a belief in the importance of political oversight and regulation to safeguard the interests of all citizens, particularly those who might be marginalized or disadvantaged

Question 69

Andreasson - New right and tradition

Answer 69

• Often so-called conservatives do advocate for radical change e.g. New Right.
  o Maybe these are not genuine conservatives - some like to call the New right old-fashioned liberals rather than conservatives.

Question 70

Andreasson - against coherence of tradition in conservatism- abstract thinking

Answer 70

Contrary to the belief that conservatives only rely on traditional and pragmatic approaches, some conservatives do embrace abstract thinking. For instance, some conservatives advocate for policies based on the economic principles of supply and demand, suggesting a more theoretical and less tradition-bound approach to politics.

Question 71

Andreasson - against coherence of tradition in conservatism- rationalism

Answer 71

conservatives sometimes engage in their form of rationalism, challenging the notion that conservatism is purely grounded in tradition and emotion. This indicates that conservatives can also employ reasoned and logical arguments to support their positions.

Friedman argued that the education system should be reformed to introduce market competition and empower parents to make rational choices about their children’s education. He proposed a system of school vouchers, which would provide families with public funds to use towards tuition at the school of their choice, whether public or private.

From a rationalist perspective, Friedman believed that introducing market forces into education would lead to improved efficiency, innovation, and quality

Question 72

Andreasson - against coherence of tradition in conservatism- not necessarily against radical alternatives

Answer 72

3. right-wing or conservative ideologies are not always opposed to radical changes. For example, thinkers like Burke and Oakeshott have been used to challenge political programs that conservatives disagree with. Additionally, during certain periods, such as the 1980s, conservatives have been as enthusiastic as their opponents in advocating for significant political reforms.

Question 73

Andreasson - against coherence of tradition in conservatism- specific critique against egalitarians

Answer 73

4Conservatism as a Positive Ideology: argues against viewing conservatism solely as a negative or ‘positional’ ideology that merely warns against changing the status quo. Instead, all conservatives desire a society where certain inequalities are maintained. When conservatives criticize purposive or goal-oriented politics, they aim to challenge the egalitarian ideals of their opponents

• Michael Oakeshott criticized post-war planning for full employment in a welfare state, seeing it as an attempt at social engineering that conservatives oppose.

Question 74

Burke on tradition/ change

Answer 74

Burke’s conservatism is not rigidly opposed to all forms of change. Instead, he distinguishes between “reform” and “innovation.” Burke argues that reform, which builds upon existing institutions and practices while preserving continuity with the past, is necessary and beneficial for maintaining social order and stability.

society is the product of organic growth

Question 75

Oakeshott on change

Answer 75

Oakeshott offers a more subtle understanding of conservatism as a disposition rather than a specific set of policies or doctrines. Oakeshott distinguishes between two modes of political activity: “enterprise” and “conservatism.” While enterprise involves deliberate attempts to reshape society according to abstract ideals or blueprints, conservatism is characterized by a preference for continuity, gradualism, and skepticism towards grand schemes of reform.

Oakeshott argues that conservatism is not opposed to change per se, but rather seeks to preserve the best of the past while adapting to changing circumstances..

Question 76

Andreasson on Conservatism and inequality

Answer 76

Conservatives agree - opposed to levelling distinctions of wealth and power:

The conservative vindication of inequality is threefold.
o Human beings are said to be naturally diverse in energy and talents, so that any project to construct a classless society will be futile.
o Egalitarian programmes are dangerous because they entail authoritarian measures which crush individual liberty.
o Social hierarchy is desirable because the majority benefit from the leadership of a few.

Question 77

Andreasson - inequalities in command

Answer 77

• Common to these strands of conservatism is the image of a chain of social discipline linked by habits of obedience and submission among the majority as well as by the qualities of wise and firm leadership on the part of an elite. (Burke)
  o Depiction of society as a a command structure distinguishes it from socialism (erosion and elimination of inequalities)

Question 78

Andreasson - difference with regards to inequality among Conservatives

Answer 78

major point of difference has been the justification of wealth and power.
o In collectivist (patrician) - emphasis upon social breeding of who constitute a ruling elite.
 Burke - ‘natural aristocracy’ - owning substantial property, they are unlikely to be excited by the false expectations which prompt others to engage in reckless schemes of political construction
o In libertarian (bourgeois) - emphasis on contribution of exceptional individuals who ascent the social scale through their own merit.
 Possess rare qualities of ambition and vision, so that prosperity which benefits less energetic majority flows from their leadership.

Question 79

Andreasson - Conservatives and free market

Answer 79

Linked to inequality - Ideal of a free market economy is common to conservatives and liberals.
o Conservatism - unregulated capitalism has been used to justify rather than undermine the authority of both and elite and a strong state.

 Poverty = moral + economic failure.
 Morally feeble individuals lacking self-discipline pose threat to stability of political order.
 e.g. the intention of the New Right in rolling back government from the economy was to restore social discipline rather than erode the state’s authority.
* Geoffrey Howe - “You cannot create a rich society without allowing some individuals to become rich as well.”

Question 80

why does burke value tradition

Answer 80

• Predicted that the quest for liberty and equality would result in forms of despotism and oligarchy more oppressive than any of the inconveniences and imperfections of the ancien régime.
• Contrasted the small ‘private stock’ of individual reason with the inexhaustible ‘general bank and capital of nations, and of ages’.

Question 81

Burke on the state

Answer 81

• The political order exists not to implement universal rights but to secure certain needs such as food, shelter and education, and each community satisfies these needs in a manner appropriate to itself.

Question 82

Hayek on size of the state

Answer 82

conservative does not object to coercion or arbitrary power so long as it is used for what he regards as the right purposes. He believes that if government is in the hands of decent men, it ought not to be too much restricted by rigid rules.

Question 83

Hayek on natural inequality

Answer 83

• the conservative position rests on the belief that in any society there are recognizably superior persons whose inherited standards and values and position ought to he protected and who should have a greater influence on public affairs than others

Question 84

Hayek on being a Conservative

Answer 84

• Does not consider himself a Conservative.
• Closer to Conservative than others- modern Progressive movements advocate for encroachments on individual liberty, so those who cherish freedom find themselves on the same side as those who habitually resist change and must support conservative parties.

Question 85

Hayeks’ critique of Conservatism

Answer 85

• He believes that conservatives cling to the status quo and resist change
• Conservatives believe that the existing order has evolved over time for a reason and should be preserved.
• Hayek believes that Conservatism is so preserving it cannot offer a directional change from the way we are going.
• with no goal of their own, conservatives have been guided by the belief that the truth must lie somewhere between the extremes—with the result that they have shifted their position every time a more extreme movement appeared on either wing.

don’t have own direction - forced to follow others
o as the socialists have for a long time been able to pull harder, the conservatives have tended to follow the socialist rather than the liberal direction

Question 86

Hayek’s positive view of Conservatism

Answer 86

• Hayek does uphold a positive view of Conservatism is that it slows down undesirable developments, but does not prevent continuance of old and undesirable ones. This has also meant that Conservatism has been dragged along a path not of its own choosing.

Question 87

Hayek on true liberalism

Answer 87

• He argues that true liberalism embraces change and is open to experimentation and evolution.
• True liberalism is a bit closer to Conservatism- is more mild and moderate critique of the present than radical progressives
• Since the development during the last decades has been generally in a socialist direction, it may seem that both conservatives and liberals have been mainly intent on retarding that movement. But the main point about liberalism is that it wants to go elsewhere, not to stand still.

Question 88

Hayek - Liberals on change

Answer 88

• the liberal accept changes without apprehension, even though he does not know how the necessary adaptations will be brought about. It is, indeed, part of the liberal attitude to assume that, especially in the economic field, the self-regulating forces of the market will somehow bring about the required adjustments to new conditions, although no one can foretell how they will do this in a particular instance

Question 89

Hayek - what liberals and conservatives share

Answer 89

• What I have described as the liberal position shares with conservatism a distrust of reason to the extent that the liberal is very much aware that we do not know all the answers and that he is not sure that the answers he has are certainly the right ones or even that we can find all the answers.

Question 90

Hayek - issue with conservative authority and liberty

Answer 90

Conservatives really like authority:
o They prioritise that this authority is not weakened rather than its power be kept within bounds - difficult to reconcile with the preservation of liberty.
o Does not object to coercion or arbitrary power as long as it is used for ‘the right reasons’.
o They hope that the wise and the good will rule not merely by example but by authority given to them.
o Conservatism, like socialism, regards itself as “entitled to force the value he holds on other people.” (perfectionist ideology)

Question 91

Hayek on Conservatism and hierarchy

Answer 91

• The conservative position rests on the belief that in any society there are recognizably superior persons whose inherited standards, values and position ought to be protected and who should have a greater influence on public affairs than others. The liberal, of course, does not deny that there are some superior people—he is not an egalitarian—but he denies that anyone has authority to decide who these superior people are

o “The conservatives deceive themselves when they blame the evils of our time on democracy. The chief evil is unlimited government, and nobody is qualified to wield unlimited power.”.

Question 92

Hayek on Conservatism and nationalism

Answer 92

• Connected with the conservative distrust of the new and the strange is its hostility to internationalism and its proneness to a strident nationalism.
  o Connection with imperialism - the more a person dislikes the strange and thinks his own ways superior, the more he tends to regard it as his mission to “civilize” others.
  o Hayek argues that conservatism and socialism are joined in being imperialists - is this just a fact of the time i.e. UK, Germany, Russia etc. happened to be colonisers at the time and there aren’t really any liberal states?

Question 93

Oakeshott on the role of the state

Answer 93

• The role of government is to maintain order, protect individual freedom and preserve the social fabric, rather than to reshape society according to a particular vision.

the job of government is to resolve collisions. It should not hold out hope of a different or better world, but the defence of each person’s right to self-government. Its routines are close to ritual, “in the enjoyment of orderly and peaceable behaviour, not in the search for truth or perfection”

to provide redress and means of compensation for those who suffer from others behaving in a contrary manner; sometimes to provide punishment for those who pursue their own interests regardless of the rules; and, of course, to provide a sufficient force to maintain the authority of an arbiter of this kind.

Question 94

Oakeshott on Conservatism and human nature

Answer 94

• Conservatism is a ‘universal human tendency – so rooted in human nature
• Conservatism is natural- There are contexts in which a conservative disposition is extremely important. First, the defence of activities engaged in for their own sake is a conservative drive. An example of this is fishing: it can be enjoyed without catching any fish at all. Any activity where enjoyment is derived not from success but familiarity is defended by the conservative.
• Even beyond the realm of pure enjoyment, the conservative disposition has a place in other activities. Anytime stability is more profitable than change, the conservative disposition is found

Question 95

Oakeshott on importance of routines

Answer 95

Routines can be improved, but their usefulness depends on familiarity. The examples he offers are the rules of public meetings or parliament. These routines “prevent collisions and they conserve human energy” (Oakeshott 1962, 181). If these routines changed on every occasion, they would lose their value

Question 96

Oakeshott on who should rule

Answer 96

• politics is unsuited to the young — not because of their vices, but because of their virtues. They are hot headed and adventurous, borderline solipsistic. Further, it requires one to reign in their own beliefs and desires, and to acknowledge the current shape of things.

Question 97

Oakeshott on nature of the state

Answer 97

• Oakeshott ‘The Common Man’ - defends aristocracy. Argues democratisation reflects a seizing of powers by less able people.

Question 98

Oakeshott quote on tradition

Answer 98

“To be conservative, then, is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried”

Question 99

why does Oakeshott like tradition

Answer 99

• to enjoy what is available rather than to wish for or to look for something else; an appropriate gratefulness for what is available, and consequently the acknowledgment of a gift or an inheritance from the past
• not necessarily the best, but the safest- What is esteemed is the present; and it is esteemed not on account of its connections with a remote antiquity, nor because it is recognized to be more admirable than any possible alternative, but on account of its familiarity and we are attached to past and present not future - Every change has the hint of the extinction of an identity.

Question 100

Oakeshott on importance of change

Answer 100

• Traditions are like living organisms, in that both ought to and usually do grow and adapt in response to their external circumstances and internal tensions, or, failing to do so, soon cease to exist
• There is plenty of room in any healthy tradition for innovations and reforms, so long as those alterations spring from an appreciation of the life of that tradition, rather than representing an attempt to wipe it out and replace it with an abstract scheme.

Question 101

Oakeshott on rationalism

Answer 101

• Oakeshott’s critique of rationalism in politics is a defence of the importance of tradition, experience, and practical wisdom in guiding political decision-making, and a rejection of the idea that there is a single, universal solution to every social and political problem
• Oakeshott argues that rationalism is a misguided approach to politics that seeks to apply technical knowledge and abstract principles to social and political problems.
• According to Oakeshott, rationalism is a product of modernity, which values efficiency, predictability, and control over tradition, custom, and practical experience.
• Rationalism in politics assumes that there is a single right answer to every problem, and that it can be discovered through the application of reason and logic. - overlooks the complexity, contingency, and unpredictability of human affairs, which cannot be reduced to a set of universal rules or formulas. (it prioritises theory over practice)

Question 102

Oakeshott on rationalism as self perpetuating

Answer 102

• The rationalist is inclined to interpret the social maladies produced by his projects not as evidence of any problem with his basic premises, but, quite to the contrary, as signaling the need for an even more energetic and thorough implementation of rationalist social engineering. This explains the tendency, noted by Ludwig von Mises, Hayek, Sandy Ikeda, and others, for each intervention in the economy to prompt yet further interventions

Question 103

Jacobs - example of urban planning to support Oakeshott

Answer 103

• mid-twentieth-century urban planners, possessed by the rationalist mindset, looked at city tenements and saw only chaos- they lacked fresh air, green spaces…

tried to create a likeness of their own wealthy, suburban lives in the context of poor neighborhoods, completely ignoring the differences that made suburban life workable, such as greater wealth

• the rationalist planners, blind to the concrete reality of tenement life, failed to realize that the mix of businesses and residences increased the safety of the residents by providing “eyes on the street.” The neighbourhood shopkeeper, who knows all the residents, is out sweeping his sidewalk early in the morning, the workers going to and from their jobs provide a steady stream of pedestrians, and even the neighbourhood bar ensures that the streets are not deserted until the wee hours of the morning
• The community ties of the bulldozed tenements were shattered, the spaces around the high rises became the domain of drug dealers and muggers, and the rationally designed inner cities of the late 60s exploded with crime and waves of riots.

Question 104

Ardent- what is authority

Answer 104

• Authority is a form of power that is accepted by those who submit to it, rather than imposed through force or coercion.
• Authority requires both a willing submission and a recognition of the legitimacy of the authority figure or institution.
• Authority is different from violence and coercion, which can produce obedience but not genuine acceptance or loyalty.

Question 105

Macintyre on morality

Answer 105

• He claims that the modern world has lost its sense of morality, as moral ideas have become fragmented and individualized.
• MacIntyre argues that morality is not just a matter of individual choice, but is rooted in social practices and institutions that give context and meaning to our actions.
• According to MacIntyre, the only way to overcome this crisis is to return to the Aristotelian tradition of virtue ethics, which emphasizes the development of character and the pursuit of the good life.

Question 106

Macintyre on Conservatism and change

Answer 106

• Conservatism is not just antiquarianism (doing what has been done) - MacIntyre: it is a living tradition, look at it reflectively

Question 107

Ardent- where authority rests

Answer 107

• Authority is not inherent in any individual or institution, but is rather a dynamic relationship between those who hold power and those who recognize it.
• The nature of authority is constantly evolving and must be continuously renegotiated and reestablished through ongoing dialogue and engagement between those who hold power and those who submit to it

Question 108

Ardent - authority and responsibility

Answer 108

• The exercise of authority involves not just the use of power, but also the responsibility to act in the best interests of those who submit to it.

Question 109

Arendt - good v bad authority

Answer 109

• Arendt distinguishes between a positive authority, in which it is possible to retain our freedom, and a destructive authority that is implemented through coercion by force.
• Authority can be based on tradition, custom, or expertise.

Question 110

Arendt - the value of authority

Answer 110

• Authority can be challenged and contested by individuals and groups.
• Authority is essential for political life and human freedom.

The loss of authority can lead to the rise of totalitarianism:
o Totalitarianism is not authoritarianism in the sense that totalitarian order is like an onion
o where the authority lies in unclear set of facades like party, bureaucracy and the police.
o You cant identify centre of authority and margin of authority

Question 111

Arendt - crisis of authority

Answer 111

• The crisis of authority in modern times is a result of the loss of traditions, values, and trust.
• Three things have disappeared from the modern world: Authority, Tradition, Religion
• The restoration of authority requires the renewal of civic virtues and public participation

Question 112

Arendt on crisis in education

Answer 112

• decline in transmission of authority and tradition - loss of tradition = sense of rootlessness and disorientation
  *The modern crisis in education stems from the separation of the public and private realms, leading to a loss of shared values and meaning.
• Education has become focused on technical training rather than cultivating the humanistic values and critical thinking necessary for a democratic society.
• The rise of mass education has led to standardization and conformity, stifling individuality and creativity.

Question 113

Arendt on aim of education

Answer 113

Not means to an end
* Education should aim to cultivate a sense of responsibility, respect for authority, and appreciation for the diversity of human experience. + has become too specialised- should be about general knowledge and understanding of the world.
* The education system should aim to create engaged and informed citizens, capable of critical thinking and independent judgment.

• Teachers should act as guides and facilitators rather than mere transmitters of knowledge- you should trust a teacher to teach what they want?
• For Arendt, the role of education is to equip the student with certain governing principles or traditions so that they can positively impact the world as it is.

Question 114

Arendt - what should education look like

Answer 114

education must be integrated with politics, and schools must become sites of active citizenship and democratic participation.

The respect for tradition and authority had to be cultivated. To fail at this would lead to ruin – increasing “that estrangement from the world by which we are already threatened on all sides.”

Question 115

Arendt - revolution through education

Answer 115

• Although Arendt favors maintaining a traditional notion of authority in education, she also insists that teachers should foster the revolutionary and the innovative in children. In effect, she helps us bridge the gap between the old (tradition) and the new (change).

Question 116

Conservatives as anti-meliorist

Answer 116

against the notion that people can get better

o They think we’re not very smart so need to be cautious and not risk it
o A whole generation is not smart enough. We need to tap into intergenerational wisdom. The wisdom of previous generations is held in institutions. Institutions are valued because they hold the wisdom of past generations.
o Institutions have survived the test of time and so they’re valuable.
would prefer avoiding loss to achieving gain

Question 117

Homosexual acts as example of conservatives as anti-meliorist

Answer 117

o Hart/ Devlin – whether homosexual acts between men should be legalised. Hart was the liberal. Devlin was the Conservative. Devlin argued that you need to enforce morality otherwise society will fall apart. In changing from a society that has one set of values with one morality to a new one will fundamentally change the society. Preserve existing value and preserve existing society

Question 118

Conservatives as relativists

Answer 118

• Relativist – believe what is right or wrong differs from society to society
  o This is a value not a belief – brought up in different countries, at different times etc.

Question 119

perfectionism and conservatism

Answer 119

there are good ways of life, there are bad ways of live – traditional value.

Question 120

Communitarian conservatism

Answer 120

Communitarian conservatism emphasizes the importance of community, tradition, and social cohesion, while also advocating for limited government intervention and respect for individual rights and responsibilities.

strong communities and traditional values are essential for maintaining social order, stability, and cohesion. They emphasize the importance of local institutions, families, and cultural traditions as the foundation of a healthy society.

emphasizing the bonds of mutual obligation and responsibility that tie individuals together within a community

local communities are best equipped to address the needs and concerns of their members and that excessive centralization can undermine community autonomy and self-determination.

Question 121

Scruton on authority as natural

Answer 121

• Authority within the family serves as an analogy for understanding political authority; it is not contractual but arises from natural necessity.
  o there is a sense in which every child does not only need its parents to exercise that power, but will also demand that they do so, to the extent that it cherishes their protection.
  o We are apt to think of children as having a responsibility towards their parents, a responsibility that in no way reflects any merely contractual right. This sense of obligation is not founded in justice – which is the sphere of free actions between beings who create their moral ties – but rather in respect, honour
• Conservatives believe in the power of the state as necessary to the state’s authority thus Conservatives uphold the constitution and established institutions as essential for maintaining societal order and authority. Conservatives place their faith in arrangements that are known and tried, and wish to imbue them with all the authority necessary to constitute an accepted and objective public realm

Question 122

7 themes of conservatism

Answer 122

Seldon and snowden
prosperous economy
limited role of the state
The nation
Grounded liberty and the rule of law
respect for property
organic society and orderly change
individual reason and human nature

Question 123

Arendt on education as conservative

Answer 123

education should be conservative but its ony for children . Education can play no part in politics because you are dealing with those people who are already educated

education is conservative because we are passing on info from past generations

Question 124

Burke on hierahcy

Answer 124

• Common to these strands of conservatism is the image of a chain of social discipline linked by habits of obedience and submission among the majority as well as by the qualities of wise and firm leadership on the part of an elite. (Burke)
  o Depiction of society as a a command structure distinguishes it from socialism

Question 125

Burke’s view of trustees

Answer 125

In Burke’s view, elected representatives (trustees) are not merely delegates who must mirror the opinions of their constituents but are entrusted with the responsibility to exercise their judgment and wisdom in governing.

Trustees, according to Burke, should act as guardians of the nation’s customs, institutions, and values, preserving what is good from the past while making prudent adaptations to meet the needs of the present.

vs delegate who are supposed to just do what you think

Question 126

why are conservatives cultural relativists

Answer 126

perfectionist but what perfection is differs from society to society

what’s true for 1 society at 1 time is not necessarily true for all societies

who we are is a function of how we were brought up- reconcile this with hn as bad/ brutish

Question 127

Conservatives as pragmatic

Answer 127

A philosophical approach that assesses the truth of meaning of theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application.

Question 128

Freedan’s cognitve

Answer 128

1. cognitive,
   * The cognitive component of ideology deals with the knowledge or understanding of social, political, and economic phenomena

involves the beliefs and assumptions indivduals hold about the fundamental chracteristics, motivations and capacities of human beings

Question 129

Freeden’s normative

Answer 129

2. Normative
   * The normative component of ideology addresses ethical and moral values, such as justice, equality, and freedom.

prescribes goals and beliefs for how society should be organised

Question 130

Freeden’s expressive

Answer 130

3. expressive components
   * concerned with emotions, attitudes, and symbols that help express one’s beliefs.

how ideologies are communicated, articulated and represented through language

Question 131

Conservative critique of free market

Answer 131

Free markets often lead to increased globalization, with goods, capital, and labor flowing across national borders more freely. While globalization can bring economic benefits, some conservatives are wary of its effects on national sovereignty, cultural identity, and domestic industries.- like protectionism

national monopolies more likely with free markets - closure of small businesses, loss of community identity, traditional values

Question 132

Arendt- education in politics

Answer 132

education can play no role in politics - dealing with people who are already educated

eflects her critique of certain educational practices that prioritize indoctrination or the transmission of pre-established knowledge over the cultivation of critical thinking, independent judgment, and active engagement in political life.