comm 3,4,5 Flashcards
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Chapter 3:
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Key terms:
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Symbol: something that represents something else
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Code: culturally agreed on and everchanging systems that help us organize, understand and generate meaning to symbols
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Displacement: our ability to talk about events removed in space or time from a speaker and situation
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Triangle of meaning: a model of communication that indicates the relationship between a thought, symbol, and referent. Highlights the indirect relationship between symbol and referent
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Denotation: definitions that are accepted by the
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language group as a whole, or the dictionary definition of a word
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connotation: definitions that are based on emotion- or experience-based associations people have with a word
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grammar: rules that govern how words are used to make phrases and sentences
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language acquisition: the process by which we learn to understand, produce, and use words to communicate within a given language group
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verbal expressions: help us communicate our observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs
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directives: utterances that try to get another person to do something
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commissives: speaker is committed to a certain course of action
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neologism: Newly coined words are those that were just brought into linguistic existence
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slang: new or adapted words that are specific
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to a group, context, and/or time period; regarded as less formal; and representative of people’s creative play with
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language
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supportive messages: messages communicated in an open, honest, and nonconfrontational way, people are sure to come together
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Esperanto: which means “hopeful,” is the most well-known and widely used auxiliary language that was intended to serve as a common international language
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Unsupportive messages: can make others respond defensively, which can lead to feelings of separation and actual separation or dissolution of a relationship
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Common types of unsupportive messages:
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Global labels: calling someone’s identity into question. Judging and generalizing can escalate a situation
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Sarcasm: usually represents passive aggressive behavior where a person indirectly communicates negative feelings
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Dragging up the past: built up negative feelings that are suddenly let out by a seemingly small thing in the moment
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Negative comparison: holding a person up to supposed standards or characteristics of another person can lead to feelings of inferiority and resentment
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Judgmental “you” messages: Accusatory messages are usually generalized overstatements about another person that go beyond labeling but still do not describe specific behavior in a productive way
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Threats: threatening someone with violence or some other negative consequence usually signals the end of productive communication. Threats usually overcompensate for a persons identity
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Jargon: specialized words used by a certain group or profession
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Whole messages: relevant types of expressions needed to most effectively communicate in a given situation (what you see, think, feel, and need)
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Partial messages: missing a relevant type of expression and can lead to misunderstanding and conflict
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Communicated messages: mixed or misleading expressions
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Affective language: language used to express a persons feelings and create similar feelings in another person
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Figurative language” the ability to convey much meaning in fewer words because some of the meaning is in the context of usage
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Simile: direct comparison of two things using the words like or as
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Metaphor: an implicit comparison of two things that are not alike and/ or are not typically associated. They become meaningful as people realize the speakers purpose for relating them
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Personification: attribution of human qualities or characteristics of other living things to nonhuman objects or abstract concepts
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Incivility: occurs when a person deviates from established social norms and can take many forms
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Common individual and situational influences that may lead to a breach of civility:
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Individual differences
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Ignorance
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Lack of skill
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Lapse of control
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Negative intent
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Polarizing language : language that presents people, ideas, or situations as polar opposites
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Two types of swearing:
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Social swearing: engaged in to create social bonds or impression for management (seen as male dominated)
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Annoyance swearing: used to manage stress and tension, which can be a preferred alternative to physical aggression
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Inferences: conclusions based on thoughts or speculation but not direct observation
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Facts: conclusions based on direct observation or group census
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Judgements: expressions of approval or disapproval that are subjective and not verifiable
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Inference-observation confusion: the misperception of an inference (conclusion based on limited info) as an observation
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Adjacency pairs: related communication structures that come one after the other in an interaction
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Dialects: versions of languages that have distinct words. Grammar, and pronunciation
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Accents: distinct styles of pronunciation
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Communication accommodation theory: explores why and how people modify their communication to fit situational, social, cultural, and relational contexts
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Convergence: a person makes his or her communication more like another persons
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Divergence: a person uses communication to emphasize the differences between his or her conversational partner and his or herself
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Code switching: change in accent, dialect or language
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Cultural bias: a skewed way of viewing or talking about a group that is typically negative
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Gen info:
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Our language system is primarily made up of symbols
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Symbols we use combine to make codes
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If a concept is abstract and the words used to define it are also abstract, then a definition may be useless
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words have denotative and connotative meanings
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baby learning process:
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2–4 months. Babies can respond to different tones of voice (angry, soothing, or playful).
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6 months. Babies can associate some words, like bye-bye, with a corresponding behavior, and they
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begin “babbling,” which is actually practice for more intelligible speech to come.
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8–10 months. Babies learn that pointing can attract or direct attention, and they begin to follow adult
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conversations, shifting eye contact from one speaker to the next.
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1 year. Babies recognize some individual words (people’s names, no) and basic rituals of verbal interaction
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By the end of the first year, babies have learned most of the basic phonetic components necessary for speech
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When we express observations, we report on the sensory information we are taking or have taken in
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When we express thoughts, we draw conclusions based on what we have experienced (similar to interpretation)
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Whereas our observations are based on sensory info, thoughts are connected to our beliefs, attitudes , and values
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The more
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specific we can be when we are verbally communicating our emotions, the less ambiguous our emotions will be for the person decoding our message
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When we express needs, we are communicating in an instrumental way to help us get things done
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American philosopher David Abram wrote, “Only if words are felt, bodily presences, like echoes or waterfalls, can we understand the power of spoken language to influence, alter, and transform the perceptual world”
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People make assumptions about your credibility based on how you speak and what you say
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Context informs when and how we express directives and how
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people respond to them
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. Promises are often paired with directives in order to persuade people to comply, and those
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promises, whether implied or stated, should be kept in order to be an ethical communicator
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Reduction creates slang words
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Inversion is a form of word play that produces slang words that refer to the opposite of their typical meaning
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The level of clarity with which we speak varies depending on whom we talk to, the situation, and our own intentions and motives
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Emotions and distractions can also interfere with our clarity
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Latter of abstraction is a model used to illustrate how language can range from concrete to abstract
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As we follow a concept up the ladder of abstraction, more and more of the “essence” of the original is lost or left out which leaves room for interpretation
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This process of leaving things out allows us to communicate more effectively because it keeps us from having an unmanageable language
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At the lowest level we are in the moment experiencing stimuli that is coming through our senses. We perceive the actual thing in front of us, it is concrete because it is actually being experienced in the moment
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As we move up an experience it is now given a name which takes us a step away from the direct experience to the use of a more abstract symbol
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Challenge faced when defining words is the tendency to go up the ladder of abstraction rather than down
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Definitions are better when compared with examples
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Since jargon is specialized it is difficult to relate to a diverse audience and should be limited when speaking to people from outside the group or atleast be clearly defined when used
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Whole messages help keep lines of communication open which helps build solid relationships
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People can figure out if a message is partial even if they can’t readily identify what is left out
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For communicated messages, though they appear to be an observation, there are underlying messages that are better brought to the surface
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Affective language can also be intentionally used in relational contexts to create or enhance interpersonal bonds, and can be used in public speaking to engage an audience and motivate them
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We use affective language spontaneously and less intentionally
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Figure of speech refers to a word or phrase that deviates from expectations in some way in meaning or usage
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Figurative language is the result of breaking semantic rules in a way that typically enhances meaning or understanding rather than diminishing it
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Convergence functions to make others feel at ease, increase understanding, and enhance social bonds
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Divergence functions are used intentionally to make another person feel unwelcome or highlight a personal, group, or cultural identity
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Chapter 4
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Key terms:
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Nonverbal communication: process of generating meaning using behavior other than words
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Paralanguage: the vocalized but not verbal part of a spoken message
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Mixed messages: messages in which verbal and nonverbal signals contradict each other
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Deception: intentional act of altering info to influence another person, extending beyond lying, exaggerating or omitting info
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The signs: nonverbal cues that communicate intimacy and signal connection between two people
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Immediacy behaviors: verbal and non verbal behaviors that lessen real or perceived physical and psychological distance between communicators
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Artifacts: objects and possessions that surround us, also communicate our identities
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Kinesics comes from the root word kinesis, which means movement and is the study of hand, arm, body, and face movements
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3 main types of gestures:
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Adaptors: touching behaviors and movements that indicate internal states typically related to arousal or anxiety
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Emblems: gestures that have a specific agreed on meaning (ex. Thumbs up, middle finger, etc)
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Illustrators: (most common type of gesture) used to illustrate the verbal message they accompany
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Oculesics: comes from the word oculus meaning eye
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Haptics: the study of communication by touch
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Vocalics: the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal qualities that go along with verbal messages
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Communicative functions of vocalics:
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Repetition: vocalic cues reinforce other verbal and nonverbal cues (ex. Saying im not sure in an uncertain tone)
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Complementing: vocalic cues elaborate on or modify verbal and nonverbal meaning (ex. Pitch and volume)
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Accenting: vocalic cues allow us to emphasize particular parts of a message which helps determine meaning (ex. SHE is my friend)
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Substituting: vocalic cues can take place of other verbal or nonverbal cues
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Regulating: vocalic cues can help regulate the flow of conversation (ex. Falling pitch, slowing rate of speaking)
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Contradicting: vocalic cues may contradict other verbal or non verbal signals
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Proxemics: the study of how space and distance influence communication
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Territoriality: innate drive to take up and defend spaces
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Primary territories: a person’s house, yard, room
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Secondary territories: don’t belong to us and aren’t exclusively under our control but are associated with us
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Public territories: open to all
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Chronemics: the study of how time affects communication
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Internalizing norms: as we age we adopt social and cultural norms that influence how we send (encode) and interpret (decode) nonverbal communication
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Encoding changes: children naturally send unmonitored non verbal signals but as we grow older we are more self aware and may censor
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Decodingassumptions: with experience people believe they improve at interpreting nonverbal messages
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Nonverbal congruernce: consistency of different nonverbal cues
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Congruent nonverbal communication: more credible and effective than conflicting or ambiguous cues
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Multichannel nature: nonverbal communication can both enhance credibility and create ambiguity
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Solution: increased awareness of nonverbal cues help maintain congruence in communication
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Mirroring: subconcious practice of matching nonverbal cues with others
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Self monitoring: helps recognize inattentive signals and switch active listening cues
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Gestures:
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llustrators: enhance verbal communication by making it more engaging
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adaptors: can hurt credibility
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eye contact is essential for initiating and regulating convos
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civil inattention: avoiding eye contact in awkward situations
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emotional contagion: facial expressions can spread emotions to others
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Verbal fillers (e.g., “um”, “like”) reduce message clarity and hurt credibility, especially in formal situations. Self-monitoring can help eliminate these fillers.
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Vocal variety: Changes in rate, pitch, and volume enhance listener engagement, understanding, information recall, and motivation.
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Personal space breaches lead to nonverbal adjustments
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Talk time and turn-taking: Speaking a little longer than usual can enhance credibility,
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Formal time: Important in professional settings (e.g., work, interviews, medical appointments).
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Informal time: More flexible in casual settings; varying expectations for punctuality (e.g., dinner parties in different locations).
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Practice and Awareness: Decoding nonverbal messages improves with practice and internalizing social norms.
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Haptics (Touch): Touch can reflect status and power dynamics.
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Proxemics (Space): A person’s territory can indicate status,
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Deception and Leakage: Leakage occurs because deception increases cognitive demands, leading to conflicting physical and emotional reactions.
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Noncontact culture: cultural groups where people stand farther apart talking, less eyecontact and touching
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Contact cultures: cultural groups where people stand closer together
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Monochromic: Time is seem as a commodity that can be budgeted, saved, apent, wasted
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Polychronic: appointment times overlap
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Gen info:
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Nonvocal elements of verbal communication are unspoken symbols to convey meaning
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Nonverbal communication is primarily biologically based while verbal communication is primarily culturally based
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Nonverbal communication developed before verbal communication
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Primary function of nonverbal communication Is to convey meaning by reinforcing substituting for or contradicting verbal communication
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Nonverbal communication can convey meaning by contradicting verbal communication
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Nonverbal communication forms: tie signs, immediacy behaviors, and expressions of emotion
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Nonverbal communication expresses who we are
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Adaptors can be targeted toward the self, objects, or others and result from unease, anxiety or sense we are not in control of our surroundings
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Emblems are different from sign language gestures
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Emblems are agreed meanings with a culture
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There are 4 general human postures: standing, sitting, squatting, and lying down
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The face and eyes are the main point of focus during communication
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Specific functions of eye contact:
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Regulate interaction and provide turn taking signals
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Monitor communication by receiving non verbal communication from others
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Signal cognitive activity (we look away when processing info)
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Convey intimidation
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Express flirtation
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Establish connection
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Pupil dilation refers to the expansion and contradiction of the black part of the center of our eyes and is considered a biometric form of measurement
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Pupil dilation is involuntary
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Pupils dilate when there is a lack of lighting and contract when light is plentiful
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Core group of facial expressions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust
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Expressions are not always connected to an emotional or biological stimulus
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Types of touch: functional professional, social polite, friendship warmth, love intimacy, sexual arousal
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Functional professional: touch is related to a goal or part of a routine professional interaction which makes it less threatening and more expected (ex. Hairstylist)
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Social polite: socially sanctioned touching behaviors help initiate interactions and show that others are included and respected (ex. Handshake)
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Friendship warmth: touch is more important and more ambiguous, they serve a relational maintenance purpose and communicate closeness
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Love intimacy: touch is more personal and is typically only exchanged between significant others
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Sexual arousal: most intimate form of touch the intention is to stimulate another person
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Pitch helps convey meaning, regulate conversational flow and communicate intensity of a message
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Paralanguage provides important context for the verbal content of speech
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Verbal fillers: sounds that fill gaps in our speech as we think about what to say next
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Public and social zones refer to the space four or more feet away from our body and communication that typically occurs in these zones is formal and not intimate
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Public space is 12 feet away from a person and extends from there
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Social zone is 4 to 12 feet away from our body and is typically in the context of a professional or casual interaction
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Personal and intimate zones refer to the space that starts at our physical body and extends four feet
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Biological time: rhythms of living things
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Personal time: ways which individuals experience time
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Physical time: fixed cycles of days, years, and seasons
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Cultural time: how a large of group of people view time
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Chronemics also covers the amount of time we spend talking
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Personal presentation involves two components:
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Physical characteristics:
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Artifacts we adorn and surround ourselves
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Jewelry can communicate personal, cultural, or social messages
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Nonverbal environment can also be manipulated to convey specific messages
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Combination of posture, touch, and eye behavior creates nonverbal clusters
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Humans have an innate urge to mirror each others nonverbal behaviors
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Mirroring builds rapport and sends implicit messages of similarity
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Turn taking signals help people hold the floor or smoothly enter convo
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Embelms are gestures
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Chapter 5:
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Key terms:
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Listening: learned process of receiving, interpreting, recalling, evaluating and responding to verbal and non verbal messages
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Listening process: interpreting, recalling, evaluating, responding
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Interpreting stage: we combine visual and auditory info we receive and try to find meaning using schemta
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Short term memory: mental storage capability to retain stimuli for 20 seconds- 1 min
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Long term memory: capability to transfer stimuli in short term memory if they are connected to existing schemta so it can be stored indefinitely
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Working memory: temporarily accessed memory that can be held and used at the same time
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Recall: being able to remember and keep info
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Evaluating: making judgements about credibility, wholeness, and worth
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Responding: sending verbal/ nonverbal messages that indicate attentiveness and understanding
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Back channel cues: verbal and nonverbal signs we send while someone is talking (ex. Head nods)
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Paraphrase: rephrase info in your own words
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Discriminative listening: is focused and is usuakky instrumental type of listening that is primarily physiological and occurs at the receiving stage of the listening process
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Informational listening: listening with the goal of comprehending and retainging info. This kind of listing is evaluative
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Typs of listening: discriminative, informational critical, empathetic
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Critical listening: listening with the goal of analyzing or evaluating a message based on info presented verbally or non verbally
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Empathetic listening: occurs when we try to understand what a speaker is thinking or feeling (helps maintain interpersonal relationships
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Listening styles (types of listeners):
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People oriented: concerned about needs and feelings of others. May get distracted from a specific task or content of a message to address feelings
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Action oriented: prefer well organized, precise, accurate info. They get frustrated whenthe communication is confusing
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Content: analytic and enjoy processing complex messages. they like in depth info so think multiple perspectives (detective)
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Time: are concerned with completing tasks and achieving goals. Don’t like irrelevant info and like to stick to a timeline
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Physiological noise: interfere with our ability to process info
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Psychological noise: noise that comes from our psychological states (ex. Moods)
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Selective attention: our tendency to pay attention to messages that benefit us (think selective hearing)
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Response preparation: tendency to rehearse what we are going to say next whikle people are still talking
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Eavesdropping: listening in on someone elses convos
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Aggressive listening: paying attention to a conversation in order to attack something narcisisstc listening: self centered and self absorbed listening where listeners try to make the conversation about themselves
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Pseudo listening: acting like you’re paying attention
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Gen info:
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Listening process doesn’t have a defined start and finish
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In receiving stage: we take in info needed for listening through auditory and visual channels
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Physiological aspects can interfere with the cognitive processes of listening
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Interpreting stage uses cognitive and relational processing as we take in informational, contextual, and relational cues and try to connect them to previous experiences
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Sensory storage is large in capacity but limited in storage
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Recall is an important part of the listening process because it helps asses abilities and affectiveness
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Main purpose of listening:
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Focus on message sent by other people our environmental noises
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Better understanding of others communication
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Critically evaluate others messages
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Monitor nonverbal signals
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Indicate we are interested or paying attending
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Empathize and show we care
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Engage in dialogue or negotiation
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Back channel cues are usually positive
