Cognitive Approach to behaviour

Question 1

3 types of stages of memory (3)

Answer 1

Sensory memory

Short term memory

Long term memory

Question 2

Define sensory memory (4)

Answer 2

memory started from sensory inputs

unknown/large capacity

small duration

information not attended to fades + is lost

Question 3

Define short-term memory (4)

Answer 3

limited capacity - 7-2 items at a time

short duration

acoustic encoding : information in STM primarily based on sound

information fades over time (decay) + pushed out by new information (displacement)

Question 4

Define long-term memory (4)

Answer 4

unknown/unlimited capacity

processed semantically (meaning)

memories can integrate with each other + become indistinguishable (interference)

retrieval failure - memory cannot be retrieved due to missing stimulus/context

Question 5

Define encoding in memory (2)

Answer 5

process of converting incoming info. to be stored by brain

happens in short-term memory

Question 6

Types of encoding in memory (4)

Answer 6

acoustic encoding - auditory inputs

visual encoding - visual inputs

elaborative encoding - connects new inputs to existing memories, makes new inputs stronger to remember

semantic encoding - meaning of input or how it could be applied

Question 7

3 main memory processes (3)

Answer 7

encoding

storage/consolidation

retrieval

Question 8

Define storage/consolidation as a memory process (3)

Answer 8

storage in long-term memory

semantic processing - meaning/application of new memory influences how it’s stored + what other memories it connects

may be modality specific - different brain regions store for different senses

Question 9

Define retrieval as a memory process (3)

Answer 9

how memories are brought from long-term memory into STM for conscious use

short-term retrieval - sequential (remembered in order)

long-term retrieval - association (memories connected to each others)

Question 10

2 types of long-term memory (2)

Answer 10

explicit/declarative memory

implicit memory/procedural memory

Question 11

Define explicit/declarative memory

Answer 11

memory that requires conscious thought

Question 12

Define implicit/procedural memory

Answer 12

memory not in conscious awareness

Question 13

Define retrogade amnesia (2)

Answer 13

loss of memory before specific time/event

affects a person’s long-term memory not short-term

Question 14

2 types of explicit/declarative memory (2)

Answer 14

semantic - facts + accumulated knowledge

episodic - personal experiences

Question 15

Define anterograde amnesia (2)

Answer 15

loss of memory after specifc time/event

inability to form new long-term memories, issue with consolidation

Question 16

Why is memory considered (re)constructive (2)

Answer 16

memories processed through encoding

memory is not static + permanent

Question 17

Components of multi-store memory model (3)

Answer 17

sensory memory

short-term memory

long-term memory

Question 18

Process of the multi-store memory model (4)

Answer 18

stimuli detected using senses and placed into sensory memory

attention ensures that those memories can be transferred to STM

memory in STM is rehearsed to be moved into LTM

memory in LTM is retrieved to be used in STM for conscious thought

Question 19

Disadvantages of the multi-store model (4)

Answer 19

reductionistic/oversimplified - verbal memory into LTM may be more complex, LTM + STM interactions may be more complex

makes no distinction between elaborative rehearsal + maintenance rehearsal

schema theory challenges idea of memory being linear

model suggests that memory is unsconscious + not controlled by individuals

Question 20

How does the study of H.M show that short-term memory and long-term memory are separate systems

Answer 20

anterograde amnesia - could form short-term memory but couldn’t transfer them to long-term memory

Question 21

Aim of Glanzer and Cunitz study (2)

Answer 21

whether a delay in recall would affect recency effect

recency affect - things which remain in short-term memory + have not yet been displaced by other information

Question 22

Participants of study of Glanzer and Cunitz (2)

Answer 22

46 army-enlisted men

repeated measures design

Question 23

Procedure of Glazner and Cunitz study (6)

Answer 23

participants given 3 five-word practice lists

participants shown 15 fifteen-worded common 1-syllable words lists on a projector

words were shown for 1 second with 2 second intervals between them

list finished –> participants either saw # or number between 0 and 9

• immediate recall - would immediately write down as many words in order

number- delayed recall - would start counting the number until experimenter said to write (either after 10 or 30 seconds)

Question 24

Strengths of Glanzer and Cunitz study (2)

Answer 24

repeated measures design - participants experience all conditions, results not affected by individual memory ability

lab setting - high level of control variables

Question 25

Weaknesses of Glanzer and Cunitz study (3)

Answer 25

participants may become tired/improve with practice lack of ecological validity - word lists do not represent real-life memory tasks lack of diversity

Question 26

Define the serial position effect (2)

Answer 26

words at the beginning of a list are rehearsed into long-term memory words at the end remain in short-term memory

Question 27

Define the primacy effect (2)

Answer 27

tendency to remember words at the beginning of list as they are rehearsed more transferred to LTM

Question 28

Strengths of the multi-store memory model (3)

Answer 28

MSM supported by brain scans - PET scans show activity in prefrontal cortex during STM + hippocampus during LTM everyday examples align with MSM explanation of rehearsal supported by research evidence - Glanzer & Cunitz

Question 29

How does Glanzer and Cunitz support the multi-store memory model (3)

Answer 29

support idea of multiple storage mechanisms (STM + LTM) LTM produced by primacy effect, STM is produced by recency effect presence of displacement in STM available

Question 30

Define the working memory model (2)

Answer 30

model on short-term memory mainly focused on cognitive processing

Question 31

Components of the working memory model (4)

Answer 31

central executive visuospatial sketchpad phonological loop episodic buffer

Question 32

Define the central executive as a component of the working memory model (3)

Answer 32

monitors visuospatial sketchpad + phonological loop decides on relevant material to send + where to send it to coordinates information between 2 components

Question 33

Define the phonological loop as a component of the working memory model (2)

Answer 33

storage/processing of verbal/written material rehearsed in memory to stay in short-term memory

Question 34

Define the visuospatial sketchpad

Answer 34

processes/stores visual information + spatial awareness

Question 35

Define the episodic buffer as a component of the working memory model (2)

Answer 35

holds info. allows info. to be passed from STM to LTM

Question 36

Assumptions of the working memory model (2)

Answer 36

2 tasks cannot be performed sucessfully together if they are part of the same stm component 2 tasks can be performed sucessfully if they are part of differing stm components

Question 37

Differences of the working memory model from the multi-store memory model (3)

Answer 37

more complex activity in the STM accounts for multiple processes in STM at once establishes the relationship/communication between LTM + STM as central executive

Question 38

Aim of Baddeley et al (2)

Answer 38

investigate the effect of word length on memory span test the limits of the phonological loop

Question 39

Procedure of Baddeley et al (4)

Answer 39

researchers prepared lists of 4-8 words - half of the lists were short words, half were long words lists in ascending order + 1.5 seconds delay between each word participants given 15 seconds to recall the words in order continued until participants failed on all eight sequences

Question 40

Results of Baddeley et al (2)

Answer 40

word length impacted memory capacity participants recalled more of shorter words + lists

Question 41

Conclusions of Baddeley et al (2)

Answer 41

working memory storage is limited working memory is modality specific - irrelevant articulation (sounds) interferes with PL while relevant does not

Question 42

Disadvantages of working memory model (3)

Answer 42

not complete memory model - only focuses on STM does not account for inaccuracies in memory little evidence on how the central executive works

Question 43

Advantags of working memory model (2)

Answer 43

supported by studies more realistic - dynamic model

Question 44

Define schema (2)

Answer 44

mental framework that helps to organise + interpret information based on past experience patterns in long-term memory

Question 45

Categories in long-term memory

Answer 45

groups of memories associated with each other

Question 46

Prototypes in long-term memory

Answer 46

"most typical" members of a category + represent its defining features

Question 47

Benefits of schema

Answer 47

make thinking faster

Question 48

Types of schema processing (3)

Answer 48

top-down processing pattern recognition stereotyping

Question 49

Define top-down processing as a type of schema processing

Answer 49

sensory inputs processed through existing/past mental representations

Question 50

Define pattern recognition as a type of schema processing

Answer 50

pattern established from inputs matching to existing mental representations

Question 51

Aim of "The War of the Ghosts" study

Answer 51

investigate how schema's could impact storytelling + communication of between people

Question 52

Participants of "The War of the Ghosts" study

Answer 52

students from University of Cambridge participants read story twice + studied related pictures for 4 mins

Question 53

Procedure of "War of the Ghosts" study (3)

Answer 53

half did repeated reproduction task - reproduced the story to Bartlett over periods of time (days/months) half did serial reproduction - retold story to chain of participants reproductions written + analysed by Bartlett

Question 54

Results of "War of the Ghosts" study (3)

Answer 54

levelling - certain details were removed assimilation - unfamiliar words replaced by more familiar ones sharpening - story arranged into more logical order

Question 55

Conclusion of "War of the Ghosts" study (4)

Answer 55

info. which seemed irrelevant to participants' schemas were removed new knowledge/words were made to fit existing schemas changes made to make story more familiar serial reproduction was more error prone than repeated reproduction

Question 56

Issues with Bartlett's "War of the Ghost" study (3)

Answer 56

did not clearly instruct participants what to do (not standardised) lack of a control group to compare different cultures intervals between reproduction were inconsistent

Question 57

Issues with Schema theory (3)

Answer 57

schema term is too vague no tangible evidence for existence of schema - difficult to observe presence not clear how schemas initially acquired

Question 58

Strengths of schema theory (4)

Answer 58

useful for understanding how people categorise/infer things useful for understanding memory/memory distortions explains stereotypes studies provide evidence for its existence

Question 59

Define bounded rationality

Answer 59

departure from optimal decision-making

Question 60

Limitations that cause bounded rationality (3)

Answer 60

limits of working memory limits of multi-store memory model decision-making problem itself

Question 61

How do limitations of working memory cause bounded rationality (2)

Answer 61

limits to how many thoughts can be processed in working memory individuals do not have all possible info. used to make decisions

Question 62

How can rationality be impacted by long-term memories (2)

Answer 62

decision-making influenced by past experiences in episodic memory meanings associated with decisions

Question 63

Features of System 1 Thinking (6)

Answer 63

automatic effortless fast emotionally charged intuitive thinking - thought processes are automatic + happen without conscious awareness generates impressions

Question 64

Features of system 2 thinking (4)

Answer 64

slow deliberately controlled rational thinking - effortful thought that requires conscious awareness generates judgements

Question 65

Stages of the theory of reasoned action (4)

Answer 65

Beliefs Attitudes Intention Behaviour

Question 66

Beliefs about the outcome of behaviour as a stage of the theory of reasoned action (3)

Answer 66

beliefs about outcome of behaviour + evaluation of whether outcome will be positive/negative if beliefs are neutral, other decision-making process will influence

Question 67

Normative beliefs about behaviour as a stage of the theory of reasoned action (3)

Answer 67

social factors that influence decision-making individuals may be motivated to comply e.g cultural beliefs + peer group's beliefs

Question 68

Attitudes of specific behaviour (Attitude) as a stage of the theory of reasoned action (2)

Answer 68

attitudes result from beliefs attitudes > impact over beliefs

Question 69

Subjective norms (Attitude) as a stage of the theory of reasoned action (2)

Answer 69

group/cultural norms individual's willingness to comply with norms

Question 70

Behavioural intention as a stage of the theory of reasoned action

Answer 70

behaviour/action performed with intent based on previous stages

Question 71

Aim of Sheppard et al study

Answer 71

investigate whether the theory of reasoned action holds validity

Question 72

Procedure of Sheppard et al

Answer 72

evaluated studies on theory of reasoned action

Question 73

Result of Sheppard et al (4)

Answer 73

attitudes + subjective norms had a very high correlation (.73) with behaviour in present correlation decreased when attitudes + subjective norms used to measure behaviour in future relationship with intention + behaviour greater when given choice of behaviours --> action to engage in behaviour more likely to happen when there is alternative behavioural choice model highly accurate in the prediction of goals + behaviours

Question 74

Define perceived behavioural control

Answer 74

extent to which an individual believes they have control to perform behaviour

Question 75

The theory of planned behaviour (2)

Answer 75

perceived behavioural control + subjective norms + attitude influence intention intention influences behaviour

Question 76

Aim of Armitage and Conner meta-analysis

Answer 76

identify the extent to which the 3 factors of the theory of planned control affect intention + behaviour

Question 77

Procedure of Armitage and Conner meta-analysis

Answer 77

analysed 19 studies on relationship between 3 factors

Question 78

Results of Armitage and Conner meta-analysis (2)

Answer 78

9/19 had evidence of significant interactive effect concluded higher levels of perceived behavioural control meant stronger intention–behaviour relationships

Question 79

Define heuristics

Answer 79

simple + efficient rules that guide decision making

Question 80

Heuristics in System 1 Thinking (2)

Answer 80

cognitive tool - allows decisions to be made quickly simplify decision-making

Question 81

Define the availability heuristic (2)

Answer 81

the ease at which the mental operation of retrieval, construction or association can be carried out examples available in memory are used to infer frequencies

Question 82

Define the framing effect

Answer 82

intuitive judgements influenced by how a problem is presented

Question 83

Aim of Kahneman and Tversky study on heuristics

Answer 83

investigate the existence of heuristics + how they affect judgement

Question 84

Procedure of Kahneman and Tversky study on heuristics (2)

Answer 84

participants given 2 seconds to calculate 2 sequences (8!) participants either received ascending or descending sequence

Question 85

Results of Kahneman and Tversky study on heuristics

Answer 85

median for ascending sequence < median for descending sequence

Question 86

Conclusion of Kahneman and Tversky study on heuristics (2)

Answer 86

extrapolated an answer from first few information anchoring bias - shortcut created to save thinking

Question 87

Aim of Loftus and Palmer et al (2)

Answer 87

investigate the role of schema theory in affecting memory and the reliability of eyewitness memory

Question 88

Relationship between System 2 and System 1 thinking

Answer 88

model assumes System 2 can override System 1 if System 2 believes System 1 judgements are considered biased

Question 89

Factors that determine corrective operations of System 2 thinking (3)

Answer 89

mood time pressure concurrent cognitive tasks

Question 90

Procedure of Loftus and Palmer Experiment 1

Answer 90

participants shown video of car accident + wanted participants to estimate the speed researchers used verbs of different intensities to see the influence on speed estimates

Question 91

Loftus reconstructive memory

Question 92

Aim of Neisser & Harsch (1992) (2)

Answer 92

accuracy of flashbulb memories used Challenger disaster

Question 93

Procedure Neisser & Harsch (1992)

Answer 93

106 students from Emory University were given a questionnaire less than 24 hours after the incident 2.5 years later - 44 of these students were asked the same questions accuracy of memories was on a scale of 1 to 5 semi-structured interviews conducted to further examine result

Question 94

Results of Neisser and Harsch study (2)

Answer 94

mean accuracy score was 2.95 out of 7 average confidence rating of 4.17 out of 5

Question 95

Conclusion of Neisser and Harsch study (3)

Answer 95

flashbulb memories may feel vivid + clear but are susceptible to distortion over time memory is still reconstructive

Question 96

Advantages of Neisser and Harsch study (2)

Answer 96

clear extreme values which allow high ecological validity - experiment started within 24 hours of incident

Question 97

Disadvantages of Neisser and Harsch study (2)

Answer 97

some people may not have considered the event to be significant enough to be stored in their flashbulb memory interview questions are relatively vague and focus more on the individual rather than the event

Question 98

Aim of Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Answer 98

invetigate whether leading questions would disrupt eyewitness memory of a real crime

Question 99

Participants of Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Answer 99

13/21 of the eyewitnesses to the crime

Question 100

Procedure of Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Answer 100

participants asked to recall event in their words participants then asked a series of specific questions + 2 leading questions one group asked if they saw "a" broken headlight, another if they saw "the" broken headlight --> no broken headlight

Question 101

Aim of Ledoux

Answer 101

investigate which areas of the brain involved in storing/processing emotional memory

Question 102

Participants of Ledoux (2)

Answer 102

fear conditioning - sound was played, rat was shocked rat would associate sound with pain

Question 103

Aim of Brown and Kulik (1977)

Answer 103

investigate whether emotionally significant memories lead to flashbulb memories

Question 104

Participants of Brown and Kulik (1977) (2)

Answer 104

40 black americans 40 white americans

Question 105

Procedure of Brown and Kulik (2)

Answer 105

participants asked about memory of assassination of well-known public (Martin Luther King Jr. + John F. Kennedy) participants asked to recollect the death of someone they personally knew

Question 106

Results of Brown and Kulik (2)

Answer 106

90% of participants could recall significant amount of detail of events 75% of black participants had memories of MLK compared to 33% of white

Question 107

Conclusions of Brown and Kulik (2)

Answer 107

supports flashbulb memory theory emotionally significant events create stronger memeories