Cognitive Approach to behaviour Flashcards
3 types of stages of memory (3)
Sensory memory
Short term memory
Long term memory
Define sensory memory (4)
memory started from sensory inputs
unknown/large capacity
small duration
information not attended to fades + is lost
Define short-term memory (4)
limited capacity - 7-2 items at a time
short duration
acoustic encoding : information in STM primarily based on sound
information fades over time (decay) + pushed out by new information (displacement)
Define long-term memory (4)
unknown/unlimited capacity
processed semantically (meaning)
memories can integrate with each other + become indistinguishable (interference)
retrieval failure - memory cannot be retrieved due to missing stimulus/context
Define encoding in memory (2)
process of converting incoming info. to be stored by brain
happens in short-term memory
Types of encoding in memory (4)
acoustic encoding - auditory inputs
visual encoding - visual inputs
elaborative encoding - connects new inputs to existing memories, makes new inputs stronger to remember
semantic encoding - meaning of input or how it could be applied
3 main memory processes (3)
encoding
storage/consolidation
retrieval
Define storage/consolidation as a memory process (3)
storage in long-term memory
semantic processing - meaning/application of new memory influences how it’s stored + what other memories it connects
may be modality specific - different brain regions store for different senses
Define retrieval as a memory process (3)
how memories are brought from long-term memory into STM for conscious use
short-term retrieval - sequential (remembered in order)
long-term retrieval - association (memories connected to each others)
2 types of long-term memory (2)
explicit/declarative memory
implicit memory/procedural memory
Define explicit/declarative memory
memory that requires conscious thought
Define implicit/procedural memory
memory not in conscious awareness
Define retrogade amnesia (2)
loss of memory before specific time/event
affects a person’s long-term memory not short-term
2 types of explicit/declarative memory (2)
semantic - facts + accumulated knowledge
episodic - personal experiences
Define anterograde amnesia (2)
loss of memory after specifc time/event
inability to form new long-term memories, issue with consolidation
Why is memory considered (re)constructive (2)
memories processed through encoding
memory is not static + permanent
Components of multi-store memory model (3)
sensory memory
short-term memory
long-term memory
Process of the multi-store memory model (4)
stimuli detected using senses and placed into sensory memory
attention ensures that those memories can be transferred to STM
memory in STM is rehearsed to be moved into LTM
memory in LTM is retrieved to be used in STM for conscious thought
Disadvantages of the multi-store model (4)
reductionistic/oversimplified - verbal memory into LTM may be more complex, LTM + STM interactions may be more complex
makes no distinction between elaborative rehearsal + maintenance rehearsal
schema theory challenges idea of memory being linear
model suggests that memory is unsconscious + not controlled by individuals
How does the study of H.M show that short-term memory and long-term memory are separate systems
anterograde amnesia - could form short-term memory but couldn’t transfer them to long-term memory
Aim of Glanzer and Cunitz study (2)
whether a delay in recall would affect recency effect
recency affect - things which remain in short-term memory + have not yet been displaced by other information
Participants of study of Glanzer and Cunitz (2)
46 army-enlisted men
repeated measures design
Procedure of Glazner and Cunitz study (6)
participants given 3 five-word practice lists
participants shown 15 fifteen-worded common 1-syllable words lists on a projector
words were shown for 1 second with 2 second intervals between them
list finished –> participants either saw # or number between 0 and 9
- immediate recall - would immediately write down as many words in order
number- delayed recall - would start counting the number until experimenter said to write (either after 10 or 30 seconds)
Strengths of Glanzer and Cunitz study (2)
repeated measures design - participants experience all conditions, results not affected by individual memory ability
lab setting - high level of control variables
Weaknesses of Glanzer and Cunitz study (3)
participants may become tired/improve with practice
lack of ecological validity - word lists do not represent real-life memory tasks
lack of diversity
Define the serial position effect (2)
words at the beginning of a list are rehearsed into long-term memory
words at the end remain in short-term memory
Define the primacy effect (2)
tendency to remember words at the beginning of list as they are rehearsed more
transferred to LTM
Strengths of the multi-store memory model (3)
MSM supported by brain scans - PET scans show activity in prefrontal cortex during STM + hippocampus during LTM
everyday examples align with MSM explanation of rehearsal
supported by research evidence - Glanzer & Cunitz
How does Glanzer and Cunitz support the multi-store memory model (3)
support idea of multiple storage mechanisms (STM + LTM)
LTM produced by primacy effect, STM is produced by recency effect
presence of displacement in STM available
Define the working memory model (2)
model on short-term memory
mainly focused on cognitive processing
Components of the working memory model (4)
central executive
visuospatial sketchpad
phonological loop
episodic buffer
Define the central executive as a component of the working memory model (3)
monitors visuospatial sketchpad + phonological loop
decides on relevant material to send + where to send it to
coordinates information between 2 components
Define the phonological loop as a component of the working memory model (2)
storage/processing of verbal/written material
rehearsed in memory to stay in short-term memory
Define the visuospatial sketchpad
processes/stores visual information + spatial awareness
Define the episodic buffer as a component of the working memory model (2)
holds info.
allows info. to be passed from STM to LTM
Assumptions of the working memory model (2)
2 tasks cannot be performed sucessfully together if they are part of the same stm component
2 tasks can be performed sucessfully if they are part of differing stm components
Differences of the working memory model from the multi-store memory model (3)
more complex activity in the STM
accounts for multiple processes in STM at once
establishes the relationship/communication between LTM + STM as central executive
Aim of Baddeley et al (2)
investigate the effect of word length on memory span
test the limits of the phonological loop
Procedure of Baddeley et al (4)
researchers prepared lists of 4-8 words - half of the lists were short words, half were long words
lists in ascending order + 1.5 seconds delay between each word
participants given 15 seconds to recall the words in order
continued until participants failed on all eight sequences
Results of Baddeley et al (2)
word length impacted memory capacity
participants recalled more of shorter words + lists
Conclusions of Baddeley et al (2)
working memory storage is limited
working memory is modality specific - irrelevant articulation (sounds) interferes with PL while relevant does not
Disadvantages of working memory model (3)
not complete memory model - only focuses on STM
does not account for inaccuracies in memory
little evidence on how the central executive works
Advantags of working memory model (2)
supported by studies
more realistic - dynamic model
Define schema (2)
mental framework that helps to organise + interpret information based on past experience
patterns in long-term memory
Categories in long-term memory
groups of memories associated with each other
Prototypes in long-term memory
“most typical” members of a category + represent its defining features
Benefits of schema
make thinking faster
Types of schema processing (3)
top-down processing
pattern recognition
stereotyping
Define top-down processing as a type of schema processing
sensory inputs processed through existing/past mental representations
Define pattern recognition as a type of schema processing
pattern established from inputs matching to existing mental representations
Aim of “The War of the Ghosts” study
investigate how schema’s could impact storytelling + communication of between people
Participants of “The War of the Ghosts” study
students from University of Cambridge
participants read story twice + studied related pictures for 4 mins
Procedure of “War of the Ghosts” study (3)
half did repeated reproduction task - reproduced the story to Bartlett over periods of time (days/months)
half did serial reproduction - retold story to chain of participants
reproductions written + analysed by Bartlett
Results of “War of the Ghosts” study (3)
levelling - certain details were removed
assimilation - unfamiliar words replaced by more familiar ones
sharpening - story arranged into more logical order
Conclusion of “War of the Ghosts” study (4)
info. which seemed irrelevant to participants’ schemas were removed
new knowledge/words were made to fit existing schemas
changes made to make story more familiar
serial reproduction was more error prone than repeated reproduction
Issues with Bartlett’s “War of the Ghost” study (3)
did not clearly instruct participants what to do (not standardised)
lack of a control group to compare different cultures
intervals between reproduction were inconsistent
Issues with Schema theory (3)
schema term is too vague
no tangible evidence for existence of schema - difficult to observe presence
not clear how schemas initially acquired
Strengths of schema theory (4)
useful for understanding how people categorise/infer things
useful for understanding memory/memory distortions
explains stereotypes
studies provide evidence for its existence
Define bounded rationality
departure from optimal decision-making
Limitations that cause bounded rationality (3)
limits of working memory
limits of multi-store memory model
decision-making problem itself
How do limitations of working memory cause bounded rationality (2)
limits to how many thoughts can be processed in working memory
individuals do not have all possible info. used to make decisions
How can rationality be impacted by long-term memories (2)
decision-making influenced by past experiences in episodic memory
meanings associated with decisions
Features of System 1 Thinking (6)
automatic
effortless
fast
emotionally charged
intuitive thinking - thought processes are automatic + happen without conscious awareness
generates impressions
Features of system 2 thinking (4)
slow
deliberately controlled
rational thinking - effortful thought that requires conscious awareness
generates judgements
Stages of the theory of reasoned action (4)
Beliefs
Attitudes
Intention
Behaviour
Beliefs about the outcome of behaviour as a stage of the theory of reasoned action (3)
beliefs about outcome of behaviour
+ evaluation of whether outcome will be positive/negative
if beliefs are neutral, other decision-making process will influence
Normative beliefs about behaviour as a stage of the theory of reasoned action (3)
social factors that influence decision-making
individuals may be motivated to comply
e.g cultural beliefs + peer group’s beliefs
Attitudes of specific behaviour (Attitude) as a stage of the theory of reasoned action (2)
attitudes result from beliefs
attitudes > impact over beliefs
Subjective norms (Attitude) as a stage of the theory of reasoned action (2)
group/cultural norms
individual’s willingness to comply with norms
Behavioural intention as a stage of the theory of reasoned action
behaviour/action performed with intent based on previous stages
Aim of Sheppard et al study
investigate whether the theory of reasoned action holds validity
Procedure of Sheppard et al
evaluated studies on theory of reasoned action
Result of Sheppard et al (4)
attitudes + subjective norms had a very high correlation (.73) with behaviour in present
correlation decreased when attitudes + subjective norms used to measure behaviour in future
relationship with intention + behaviour greater when given choice of behaviours –> action to engage in behaviour more likely to happen when there is alternative behavioural choice
model highly accurate in the prediction of goals + behaviours
Define perceived behavioural control
extent to which an individual believes they have control to perform behaviour
The theory of planned behaviour (2)
perceived behavioural control + subjective norms + attitude influence intention
intention influences behaviour
Aim of Armitage and Conner meta-analysis
identify the extent to which the 3 factors of the theory of planned control affect intention + behaviour
Procedure of Armitage and Conner meta-analysis
analysed 19 studies on relationship between 3 factors
Results of Armitage and Conner meta-analysis (2)
9/19 had evidence of significant interactive effect
concluded higher levels of perceived behavioural control meant stronger intention–behaviour relationships
Define heuristics
simple + efficient rules that guide decision making
Heuristics in System 1 Thinking (2)
cognitive tool - allows decisions to be made quickly
simplify decision-making
Define the availability heuristic (2)
the ease at which the mental operation of retrieval, construction or association can be carried out
examples available in memory are used to infer frequencies
Define the framing effect
intuitive judgements influenced by how a problem is presented
Aim of Kahneman and Tversky study on heuristics
investigate the existence of heuristics + how they affect judgement
Procedure of Kahneman and Tversky study on heuristics (2)
participants given 2 seconds to calculate 2 sequences (8!)
participants either received ascending or descending sequence
Results of Kahneman and Tversky study on heuristics
median for ascending sequence > median for descending sequence
Conclusion of Kahneman and Tversky study on heuristics (2)
extrapolated an answer from first few information
anchoring bias - shortcut created to save thinking
Aim of Loftus and Palmer et al (2)
investigate the role of schema theory in affecting memory
and the reliability of eyewitness memory
Relationship between System 2 and System 1 thinking
model assumes System 2 can override System 1 if System 2 believes System 1 judgements are considered biased
Factors that determine corrective operations of System 2 thinking (3)
mood
time pressure
concurrent cognitive tasks
Procedure of Loftus and Palmer Experiment 1
participants shown video of car accident + wanted participants to estimate the speed
researchers used verbs of different intensities to see the influence on speed estimates
Loftus reconstructive memory
Aim of Neisser & Harsch (1992) (2)
accuracy of flashbulb memories
used Challenger disaster
Procedure Neisser & Harsch (1992)
106 students from Emory University were given a questionnaire less than 24 hours after the incident
2.5 years later - 44 of these students were asked the same questions
accuracy of memories was on a scale of 1 to 5
semi-structured interviews conducted to further examine result
Results of Neisser and Harsch study (2)
mean accuracy score was 2.95 out of 7
average confidence rating of 4.17 out of 5
Conclusion of Neisser and Harsch study (3)
flashbulb memories may feel vivid + clear
but are susceptible to distortion over time
memory is still reconstructive
Advantages of Neisser and Harsch study (2)
clear extreme values which allow
high ecological validity - experiment started within 24 hours of incident
Disadvantages of Neisser and Harsch study (2)
some people may not have considered the event to be significant enough to be stored in their flashbulb memory
interview questions are relatively vague and focus more on the individual rather than the event
Aim of Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
invetigate whether leading questions would disrupt eyewitness memory of a real crime
Participants of Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
13/21 of the eyewitnesses to the crime
Procedure of Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
participants asked to recall event in their words
participants then asked a series of specific questions + 2 leading questions
one group asked if they saw “a” broken headlight, another if they saw “the” broken headlight –> no broken headlight
Aim of Ledoux
investigate which areas of the brain involved in storing/processing emotional memory
Participants of Ledoux (2)
fear conditioning - sound was played, rat was shocked
rat would associate sound with pain
Aim of Brown and Kulik (1977)
investigate whether emotionally significant memories lead to flashbulb memories
Participants of Brown and Kulik (1977) (2)
40 black americans
40 white americans
Procedure of Brown and Kulik (2)
participants asked about memory of assassination of well-known public (Martin Luther King Jr. + John F. Kennedy)
participants asked to recollect the death of someone they personally knew
Results of Brown and Kulik (2)
90% of participants could recall significant amount of detail of events
75% of black participants had memories of MLK compared to 33% of white
Conclusions of Brown and Kulik (2)
supports flashbulb memory theory
emotionally significant events create stronger memeories
