Cognitive Flashcards
Flashbulb Memory - (9/11)
Talarico & Rubin (2003)
Flashbulb Memory - 1986 space shuttler disaster
Neisser & Harsch (1992)
Flashbulb Memory - Martin Luther King Jr
Brown & Kulik (1997)
Schema Theory - War of the Ghosts
Bartlett (1932)
Schema Theory - Office
Brewer & Treyens (1981)
Schema Theory - Robbers & Home buyers
Anderson & Pichert (1978)
Reconstructive Memory - Car Crash
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Reconstructive Memory - Lost in the mall
Loftus & Pickrell (1995)
Reconstructive Memory - Eyewitnesses
Yuille & Cutshall (1986)
Cognitive biases - Dunning Kruger Effect
Dunning & Kruger (1999)
Neisser & Harsch (1992) Aim & Experiment & participants
- evaluate the notion that flashbulb memories are highly accurate, as they can be influenced by media discussions after the event
- laboratory experiment
- 106 americans
Neisser & Harsch (1992) Method
- recall 1986 space shuttler disaster 24 hours after event & then 2 years after
Neisser & Harsch (1992) Results
- participants recalled the space shuttle disaster with conviction 2 years later,
- the memory had on average distorted by 40% in accuracy
Neisser & Harsch (1992) Implications
- flashbulb memories are highly influenced by external discussion of the event
- flashbulb memories can deteriorate in accuracy like normal memories
Brown & Kulik (1977) Aim
- determine the role of personal significance of events impacting the cognitive processes which encode the event
Brown & Kulik (1977) Experiment & Participants
- field survey
- 80 male americans (1/2 black & other 1/2 white)
Brown & Kulik (1977) Method
- the participants filled out a questionnaire giving as much details of their memories surrounding JFK & Martin Luther King Jr
Brown & Kulik (1977) Results
- 75% of black participants had flashbulb memories if Luther due to the stronger personal relevance
- only 33% of white participants had flashbulb memorise of his assassination
Brown & Kulik (1977) Implications
- proves that personal significance may make the encoding processes of memories more vivid & increase memory retention
Bartlett (1932) Participants
- 20 British people (unaware of native American concepts)
Bartlett (1932) Method
- researchers would tell participants Native American legend w/ foreign concepts & names
- the participants were then asked to retell the legend a few days, then few weeks, then few months later
Bartlett (1932) Results
- the participants increasingly forgot parts of the legend with time
- as more time progressed the names and concepts of the story also converted to concepts more familiar to westerners
Bartlett (1932) Implications
- new information & foreign concepts are altered to fit into pre-existing schemas
Brewer & Treyens (1981) Aim, Experiment & Participants
- to determine the influence that our schemas have on information recall
- laboratory experiment
- 86 students
Brewer & Treyens (1981) Method
- each participant was placed into a waiting office
- in the office were typical office objects, unorthodox office objects, and typical office objects that were omitted
- after 35 seconds in the office they were taking out of the office and asked to recall all the objects they could remember from the room
Brewer & Treyens (1981) Results
- most participants remembered many of the typical office objects, and unusual objects
- participants also mentioned seeing some of the intentionally omitted objects
Brewer & Treyens (1981) Implications
- participants recalled the unusual objects because they stood out from their office schema significantly
- participants remembered the typical objects because it fitted into their schema around objects
- participants also recalled the omitted office objects because their schema expected those objects to be there and reconstructed their memory as if those objects were there
Anderson & Pichert (1978) Aim, Experiment, & Participants
- determine the ways Schemas impact encoding & retrieval of information
- laboratory experiment
- 39 University studens
Anderson & Pichert (1978) Method
- participants were split into 2 groups — home buyers or robbers
- they were then told a story about a house
- after being distracted for 12 minutes
- 1/2 of all participants were asked to switch perspectives (robbers to homebuyers & vice versa) whilst the rest stayed with original schema
- then the participants were asked to recall the story of the house with as much details as possible
Anderson & Pichert (1978) Results
- people from burglar schema recalled information related to what is relevant to the burglar (& vice versa)
- however the participants which switched schemas through the experiment were able to recall information relating to both schemas
Anderson & Pichert (1978) Implications
- schemas are what make details relevant to us and hence make us more likely to be able to recall them
Loftus & Palmer (1974) Aim, Experiment, & Participants
- Determine whether leading questions/framing can alter memory of events
- laboratory experiment
- 150 students
Loftus & Palmer (1974) Method
- participants were divided into 3 groups & shown a video of a car crash
- each group answered questions about the crash
(1) group asked: “how fast were cars when smashed”
(2) group asked: “hit”
(3) group: control (not asked abt speed) - after a week had passed the participants returned and asked if the car crash depicted broken glass
Loftus & Palmer (1974) Results
- around 50% if the 1st group said ‘yes’ to seeing broken glass
- only around 20% in both group 2 and 3 said yes to seeing broken glass
- 1st group also had higher speed estimates than the 2nd group
Loftus & Palmer (1974) Implications
- language used to ask question can influence the memory formed surrounding the event
Loftus & Pickrell (1995) Aim, Experiment, & Participants
- to determine whether suggestion could implant a false memory
- laboratory experiment
- 24 people
Loftus & Pickrell (1995) Method
- family members of participants were contacted for information about the participants background and for 3 real young childhood memories
- the participants were then sent a questionnaire about 4 childhood events — which included a false memory about getting lost in a mall
- if they didn’t remember the even they were instructed to state that
- 2 weeks later the researchers would ask the participants to recall all 4 memories with as much detail as possible
Loftus & Pickrell (1995) Results
- 25% of participants successfully had the false memory implanted however with low confidence
Loftus & Pickrell (1995) Implications
- suggestion may result in the formation of new memories
Yuille & Cutshall (1986) Aim
- determine whether framing devices would impact recollection on emotionally charged events
Yuille & Cutshall (1986) Experiment & Participants
- field experiment
- 13 real eyewitnesses to a burglary
Yuille & Cutshall (1986) Method
- 4 months after witnessing the crime, the researchers asked them to answer questions about the event
- 1/2 participants were asked about if ‘they saw an’ object during the crime, & other 1/2 were asked if they saw ‘the’ object
Yuille & Cutshall (1986) Results
- the recounting of the crime was very reliable and matched the office police report testimonies
- the leading questions were also found to have no influence on the answer the participants gave
Yuille & Cutshall (1986) Implications
- when emotional & personal significance are tied to an event the details are able to be recalled more accurately than ordinary
Dunning & Kruger (1999) Aim, Experiment, & Participants
- to determine relationship between perceived ability & actual ability
- laboratory experiment
- 141 students
Dunning & Kruger (1999) Method
- students were given an exam and afterwards were asked to estimate the score they believe they received
Dunning & Kruger (1999) Results
- those with the lowest actual scores heavily overestimated their test scores
- those with the highest actual test scores underestimated their results
Dunning & Kruger (1999) Implications
- when people are unskilled their cognitive biases make them unable to evaluate their objective skill level
- when people understand a topic they understand the complexity and so underestimate their abilities
Cognitive processes and technology
Studies:
Mueller & Oppenheimer (2014)
Rosen (2011)
Hembroke & Gay (2003)
Thinking & Decision making cognitive process; system 1 & system 2
Studies:
N/A
Muller & Oppenheimer (2014) Aim, experiment, participants
- to investigate the effect of using technology in learning on peoples ability to recall information
- laboratory experiment
- 109 UCLA undergraduates
Muller & Oppenheimer (2014) Method
- all the students watched the same educational film
- half took hand written notes
- other half took notes on laptop
- asked factual vs. conceptual questions about film
Muller & Oppenheimer (2014) Results
- handwritten notes recalled and answered conceptual questions better
Muller & Oppenheimer (2014) Implications
- taking notes on laptop is fast but condusive to transcription
- rather than handwritten which causes people to process the information better helping their conceptual understanding
- technology being conductive to transcription rather than processing information
- technology doesn’t allow for the deeper processing of information hence hindering conceptual understand
Rosen (2011) Aim, Experiment, Participant
- to investigate impact of text message interruptions in learning in a classroom on recall ability
- field experiment
- 185 collage students
Rosen (2011) Method
-
Rosen (2011) Results
Rosen (2011) Implications
