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MCAT Psych / Soc > Cognition, Consciousness, and Language > Flashcards

Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards

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1
Q

how our brains process and react to the information overload presented to us by the world

A

cognition

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2
Q

states that the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information much like a computer

A

information processing model

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3
Q

development of one’s ability to think and solve problems

A

cognitive development

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4
Q

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational

A

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

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5
Q

one of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development:

focuses on manipulating environment to meet physical needs through circular reaction; object permanence ends stage

A

sensorimotor stage

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6
Q

one of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development:

focuses on symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration

A

preoperational stage

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7
Q

inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

A

egocentrism

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8
Q

tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon

A

centration

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9
Q

one of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development:

focuses on understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical objects

A

concrete operational stage

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10
Q

one of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development:

focuses on abstract thought and problem solving

A

formal operational stage

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11
Q

intelligence that consists of solving new or novel problems, possibly using creative methods

A

fluid intelligence

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12
Q

intelligence related to solving problems using acquired knowledge, often can be procedural

A

crystallized intelligence

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13
Q

causes normal mild level of cognitive decline

A

aging

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14
Q

disorders and conditions characterized by general loss of cognitive function

A

dementia

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15
Q

organic brain disorders, genetic and chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements, and drug use are _____ that affect _____

A

biological factors that affect cognition

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16
Q

pattern of approach for a given problem

A

mental set

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17
Q

inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

A

functional fixedness

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18
Q

type of problem solving:

various solutions are tried until one is found to work

A

trial-and-error

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19
Q

type of problem solving:

formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem

A

algorithm

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20
Q

type of problem solving:

starts from set of general rules and draws conclusions from information given

A

deductive (top-down) reasoning

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21
Q

type of problem solving:

seeks to create a theory via generalizations

A

inductive (bottom-up) reasoning

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22
Q

shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make a decision

A

heuristics

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23
Q

exist when an experimenter or decision maker is unable to objectively evaluate information

A

biases

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24
Q

tendency to focus on information that fits an individuals beliefs

A

confirmation bias

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25
Q

a “gut feeling” regarding a particular decision

A

intuition

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26
Q

subjective experience of a person in a certain situation; how a person feels often influences how a person thinks and makes decisions

A

emotion

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27
Q

proposes seven areas of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

A

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

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28
Q

intelligence that involves ability to evaluate and reason

A

analytical intelligence

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29
Q

intelligence that involves ability to solve problems using novel methods

A

creative intelligence

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30
Q

intelligence that involves dealing with every day problems at home or at work

A

practical intelligence

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31
Q

intelligence that refers to the ability to perceive, express, understand, and manage one’s emotions

A

emotional intelligence

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32
Q

underlying variable of intelligence, often measured with standardized tests (such as Stanford-Binet ____ Test)

A

intelligence quotient (IQ)

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33
Q

state of being awake and able to think, perceive, process, and express information, β and α waves predominate on EEG

A

alertness

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34
Q

stage of sleep:

light sleep dominated by theta waves on EEG

A

stage 1

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35
Q

stage of sleep:

slightly deeper sleep than stage 1; includes theta waves, sleep spindles, and K complexes

A

stage 2

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36
Q

bursts of high-frequency waves during sleep

A

sleep spindles

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37
Q

singular high amplitude waves during sleep

A

K complexes

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38
Q

stage of sleep:

deep (slow-wave) sleep (SWS); delta waves predominate EEG

A

stages 3 and 4

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39
Q

includes stages 3 and 4 of sleep

A

NREM (non-rapid eye movement)

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40
Q

mind appears close to awake on EEG, but person is asleep, eye movements and body paralysis occur in this stage; more frequent toward the morning

A

REM (rapid eye movement)

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41
Q

refers to single complete progression through sleep stages; approximately 90 minutes for adults, normal cycle is stage 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or just 1-2-3-4-REM

A

sleep cycle

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42
Q

changes in lighting in the evening trigger release by pineal gland resulting in sleepiness

A

melatonin

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43
Q

levels increase in early morning to help promote wakefulness

A

cortisol

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44
Q

mostly occurs during REM sleep

A

dreaming

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45
Q

include dyssomnias (insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, sleep deprivation) and parasomnias (night terrors, sleep walking)

A

sleep-wake disorders

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46
Q

disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep

A

dyssomnias

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47
Q

abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep

A

parasomnias

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48
Q

state of consciousness in which individuals appear to be in control of normal functions, but are in highly suggestible state; often used for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation

A

hypnosis

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49
Q

involves a quieting of the mind and is often used for relief of anxiety

A

meditation

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50
Q

reduce nervous system activity, resulting in sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety; includes alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines that promote or mimic GABA activity in brain

A

depressants

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51
Q

cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system by increasing dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin concentration at the synaptic cleft; include amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy

A

stimulants

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52
Q

naturally occurring forms of opium; type of narcotic (painkiller); include morphine and codeine

A

opiates

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53
Q

synthetic derivatives of opium; type of narcotic (painkiller); include oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin

A

opioids

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54
Q

drugs which typically cause introspection, distortions of reality and fantasy, and enhancement of sensory experiences; include LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms

A

hallucinogens

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55
Q

which is the psychoactive drug with lowest risk of dependence: stimulants, hallucinogens, alcohol, or sedatives

A

hallucinogens

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56
Q

has depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effects, active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

A

marijuana

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57
Q

pathway that mediates drug addiction; includes nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area; dopamine is the main neurotransmitter in this pathway

A

mesolimbic pathway

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58
Q

allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention

A

selective attention

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59
Q

uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at once

A

divided attention

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60
Q

consists of phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics

A

language

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61
Q

refers to the actual sound of speech

A

phonology

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62
Q

refers to building blocks of words, such as rules for pluralization (-s) or past tense (-ed)

A

morphology

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63
Q

refers to the association of meaning with words

A

semantics

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64
Q

refers to the rules dictating word order

A

syntax

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65
Q

refers to the change in language delivery depending on context

A

pragmatics

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66
Q

explains language acquisition as being innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD)

A

nativist (biological) theory

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67
Q

explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers

A

learning (behaviorist) theory

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68
Q

explains language acquisition as being caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others

A

social interactionist theory

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69
Q

states that the lens through which we view and interpret the world is created by language

A

Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis

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70
Q

part of brain speech areas are found in

A

dominant hemisphere

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71
Q

controls motor function of speech; damage can result in ____ aphasia

A

Broca’s area (Broca’s aphasia)

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72
Q

nonfluent aphasia in which generating each word requires great effort

A

Broca’s aphasia

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73
Q

controls language comprehension; damage can result in _____ aphasia

A

Wernicke’s area (Wernicke’s aphasia)

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74
Q

fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension

A

Wernicke’s aphasia

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75
Q

connects Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area; damage results in conduction aphasia

A

arcuate fasiculus

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76
Q

aphasia marked by inability to repeat words heard despite intact speech generation and comprehension

A

conduction aphasia

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77
Q

is a systemic error made by study participants who forget or omit details from the data collection

A

recall bias

78
Q

occurs when information collected to quantify a particular disease outcome is incorrect

A

measurement bias

79
Q

explains the process through which two variables are related

A

meditating variable (mediator)

80
Q

dream theory:

attributes dreams to random neuronal activity

A

activation synthesis theory

81
Q

dream theory:

states that dreams are a way to solve problems during sleep

A

problem solving dream theory

82
Q

dream theory:

states that dreams arise from the stream of consciousness being continuous during arousal and sleep

A

cognitive process dream theory

83
Q

dream theory:

combines biological and psychological perspectives of dreaming with physiological change

A

neurocognitive model of dreaming

84
Q

By Piaget, how is new information processed

A

Adaptation

85
Q

How does adaptation come (2 ways)

A

Assimilation and Accommodation

86
Q

Assimilation

A

classifying new information into existing concepts

87
Q

Accommodation

A

existing concepts are modified to encompass new information

88
Q

Piaget’s Stages

A

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

89
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

<2 years

manipulate the environment to meet physical needs and learn to coordinate sensory input with motor actions

exhibit primary and secondary circular reactions

90
Q

Primary circular reactions

A

repetitions of body movements that originally occurred by chance. Child repeats because they find these soothing

ex: thumb sucking

91
Q

Secondary circular reactions

A

manipulation is focused on something outside of the body. This is repeated because child gets a response from the environment

ex: kid throws toy and parent retrieves

92
Q

Object Permanence

A

what ends the sensorimotor stage

understanding that objects continue existing even when out of view.

peek-a-boo is no longer entertaining

93
Q

Conservation

A

physical amount remains the same even if change in shape

94
Q

Representational thought

A

child begins to create mental representations of external objects and events

95
Q

Preoperational stage

A

2-7 years

symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

Cannot understand conservation

ex: will think a big 1 slice of pizza is less than 2 small slices

96
Q

Symbolic Thinking

A

pretend play, make-believe, and have an imagination

97
Q

Egocentrism

A

cannot imagine what a person may think or feel

98
Q

Concrete Operational Stage

A

7-11 years

can understand conservation and the perspectives of others. Loss of egocentrism. Logical thought if the objects are concrete and info is given

cannot think abstractly

99
Q

Formal operational stage

A

11 y/o

can think logically about abstract ideas. can manipulate variables.

can grasp scientific concepts and hypothetical reasoning

100
Q

Vygotsky

A

internalization of culture (rules, symbols, language) drives cognitive development. Interaction and learning with and from others can further develop skills

101
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

solving new problems using creative methods

peaks in early adulthood, declines with age

102
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

solving problems using acquired knowledge. can be procedural

peaks in middle adulthood and remains stable

103
Q

Mental Set

A

tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

104
Q

Functional fixedness

A

the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional matter

105
Q

Deductive (top-down) reasoning

A

starts from a general set of rules and draws conclusions from the given information

begins with retrieving sensory information from our external environment to build perceptions based on the current input of sensory information.

ex: logic puzzles

106
Q

Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning

A

allow the stimulus itself to shape our perception, without any preconceived ideas.

interprets incoming information based on prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations.

107
Q

Heuristics

A

“rule of thumb”

May lead us astray, but make quick decision making

108
Q

availability heuristic

A

used when we base the likelihood of an event on how easily examples come to mind

109
Q

Representative Heuristics

A

categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category

110
Q

disconfirmation principle

A

the evidence shows that the solution did not work

111
Q

confirmation bias

A

tendency to focus on info that fits beliefs, while rejecting what goes against them

can prevent an individual from eliminating the solution

112
Q

Overconfidence

A

interpret one’s beliefs as infallible

113
Q

hindsight bias

A

overestimate ability

114
Q

belief perseverance

A

inability to reject a belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

115
Q

Intuition

A

the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence.

“feels” correct

116
Q

Recognition-primed decision model

A

from lots of experience, one can make decisions without needed explicit evidence

117
Q

What are Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

A

Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Musical
Naturalist
Visual-spatial
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Bodily-kinesthetic

(I Love My Natural Vag In Brandon Li)

118
Q

Interpersonal Intelligence

A

ability to detect and navigate the moods and motivations of others

119
Q

Intrapersonal Intelligence

A

being mindful of one’s own emotions, strengths, and weaknesses, which can provide clear guidance of what role they should take in a group of society

120
Q

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of human intelligence

A

Analytical (evaluate and reason)
Creative (solve problems with novel methods)
Practical (dealing with everyday problems)

121
Q

Emotional intelligence

A

addresses emotion intelligence:
1. express and perceive emotions in people
2. regulate our emotions
3. awareness of emotions shaping us
4. comprehend and understand emotions

122
Q

IQ formula

A

(mental age / chronological age) x 100

123
Q

By Galton, is intelligence genetic or environmental ?

A

genetic

but in reality, it is both

124
Q

Consciousness

A

one’s awareness of the world and their existence in it

125
Q

Alertness

A

state of consciousness where we are awake and able to think. Can perceive, process, and verbalize info.

And experience physiological arousal.

Higher cortisol levels and EEG shows waking state

126
Q

What part of the brain maintains alertness

A

prefrontal cortex, which communicate with reticular formation in the brainstem

127
Q

waves in sleep

A

beta, alpha, theta, and delta + a 5th one for REM

BAT-D

128
Q

when are beta waves evident?

A

when the person is alert or attending a mental task that requires concentration

high frequency and neurons are randomly firing

129
Q

when are alpha waves evident?

A

when we are awake but relaxing with eyes are closed.

Slower than beta waves and more synchronized

130
Q

when do you enter stage 1 / theta waves?

A

As soon as you doze off

irregular wave forms at slower frequencies and higher voltage

131
Q

When do you enter stage 2 / NREM2

A

theta waves along with bursts of high frequency K complexes (single, high-amplitude waves)

132
Q

When do you enter stage 3 / NREM3

A

fall even more deeply asleep (slow-wave sleep)

slower eeg activity and only a few sleep waves per second are seen. It is hard to wake someone up here

Associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation and increased growth hormone release

133
Q

NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep

A

arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed

134
Q

Why is REM called paradoxical sleep

A

one’s heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but they are still asleep

135
Q

REM memory consolidation type

A

procedural (performance of a person)

136
Q

Slow-wave sleep (SWS) consolidation type

A

declarative (recall and retrieval)

137
Q

Sleep cycle

A

single complete progression through the sleep stages.

138
Q

Melatonin

A

serotonin-derived hormone released from the pineal gland

the retina has direct communication to the hypothalamus, so decreasing light causes the release of melatonin

139
Q

Cortisol

A

steroid produced in the adrenal cortex

Levels increase during early morning, as light causes the release of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus

CRF causes a release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary, simulating cortisol release

140
Q

What stage are dreams longer and more vivid

A

NREM, not REM

141
Q

Activation-Synthesis Theory

A

dreams are caused by random activation of neural circuitry, which mimics incoming sensory information and consists pieces of stored memory, desires, needs, and experiences. The cortex stitches these together to make a dream

142
Q

Problem Solving Brain Theory

A

dreams are a way to solve life problems while seeing, as interpretation is different from when awake

143
Q

Cognitive Process Dream Theory

A

dreams are a sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness. Content of dream rapidly shifts

144
Q

Two categories of sleep-wake disorders

A

dyssomnias and parasomnias

145
Q

Dyssomnias

A

disorders that make it difficult to sleep, stay asleep.

Insomnia, Narcolepsy, and Sleep apnea

146
Q

Parasomnias

A

abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep. Includes night terrors and sleep walking

most occur during NREM

147
Q

Insomnia

A

difficulty falling asleep of staying asleep

can be related to anxiety, depression, medications, or disruptions of circadian rhythm and sleep cycle

148
Q

Narcolepsy

A

lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep

includes catalepsy, sleep paralysis, and hallucinations

149
Q

cataplexy

A

loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours

150
Q

sleep paralysis

A

being unable to move despite being awake

151
Q

hypnagogic and hypopomic hallucinations

A

hallucinations when going to sleep or waking

152
Q

Sleep apnea

A

inability to breathe during sleep. Wake in the middle of the night to breathe

Brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe

153
Q

Night terrors

A

common in children.

Periods of intense anxiety during slow-wave sleep

154
Q

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)

A

during SWS

155
Q

REM rebound

A

earlier and greater duration of REM after sleep deprivation

156
Q

Hypnosis

A

a state in which a person appears to be in control of normal functions, but can succumb to suggestions of others

157
Q

Meditation in the eeg

A

resembles stage 1 sleep, with theta and slow alpha waves

158
Q

Depressants

A

reduce nervous system activity, leading to relaxation and reduced anxiety

159
Q

Alcohol

A

a depressant.

Increases GABA receptor, which causes hyperpolarization of the membrane. Causing generalized brain inhibition, resulting in diminished arousal

Disinhibition: lack of self control

Increases dopamine levels, causing mild euphoria

160
Q

Alcohol myopia

A

cannot recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world

161
Q

Wernicke-Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A

brain disorder from alcoholism

deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B).

Severe memory impairment with changes in metal status and loss of motor skills

162
Q

Sedatives and 2 types

A

depressant of CNS activity which results in relaxation and drowsiness

Barbituates and Benzodiazepines

163
Q

Barbituates and Benzodiazepines

A

anxiety-reducing and sleep medications

increase GABA activity, producing a feeling of relaxation

Barbs mostly replaced by benzodiazepines, as benz are less prone to overdose

164
Q

Stimulants

A

increase in arousal in the nervous system. Increases the frequency of action potentials

165
Q

Amphetamines

A

causes increased arousal by increasing the release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse.

decreased appetite and need for sleep. Increased heart rate and blood pressure. Hypervigilance (being on edge), anxiety, delusions, paranoia

166
Q

Cocaine

A

acts on dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, and decreases reuptake of the neurotransmitters.

decreased appetite and need for sleep. Increased heart rate and blood pressure. Hypervigilance (being on edge), anxiety, delusions, paranoia

167
Q

Ecstasy

A

hallucinogen + amphetamine.

All of amphetamine effects + euphoria, well-being, and connectedness

168
Q

Opiates and opioids

A

narcotics and painkillers

bind to opioid receptors in PNS and CNS. Act as endorphin agonists, creating a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria
Opiates are natural (morphine, codeine)

Opioids are derived (oxycodone, heroin)

169
Q

Heroin

A

rapidly metabolizes to morphine

170
Q

Hallucinogens

A

interaction between neurotransmitters, esp seratonin

cause distortions of reality and enhance sensory experiences. Increased heart rate, dilation of pupils

171
Q

Marijuana

A

THC acts at cannabinoid, glycine, and opioid receptors. THC inhibits GABA activity and increased dopamine activity (pleasure).

stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen

172
Q

mesolimbic reward pathway

A

related to drug addiction

  1. nucleus accumbens
  2. ventral tegmental area
  3. connection between 1 and 2 is the medial forebrain bundle

the above are involved in motivation and emotional response. Its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use. Addiction pathway

173
Q

Selective Attention

A

we can focus on one thing and ignore background, unless something stark happens like ur name being called

174
Q

Dichotic listening tests

A

test selective attention

175
Q

Divided attention

A

perform multiple tasks at the same time

familiar processes with automatic processing

176
Q

5 components of Language

A

Phonology: sound
Morphology: structure of words
Semantics: association of meaning with a word
Syntax: words put together into a sentence
Pragmatics: dependence of lang on context

177
Q

Categorical perception

A

distinguish sounds

178
Q

Timeline of language acquisition

A

9-12 mts: babbling
12-18 mts: one word per month
18-20 mts: “explosion of lang” combining words
2-3 yrs: longer sentences (3+ words)
5 yrs: language rules mastered

179
Q

Chomsky’s Navist (biological) theory

A

existence of some innate capacity for language.

transformational grammar: multiple ways to form a sentence to mean the same thing

180
Q

language acquisition device (LAD)

A

pathway in brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules

181
Q

Navist critical period

A

2 years and puberty

182
Q

Skinner’s Leaning (Behaviorist) Theory

A

language acquisition through operant conditioning by reinforcement. Repeat and reinforce sounds

183
Q

Social interactionist theory

A

lang development is the interplay between biological and social processes.

184
Q

Whorfian / linguistic-relativity hypothesis

A

our perception of reality is determined by the context of lang. Lang affects how we think

185
Q

What is in the left hemisphere for language

A

Broca and Wernicke’s areas

connected by the arcuate fasciculus

186
Q

Broaca’s area

A

in the inferior frontal gyrus

motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex

187
Q

Wernike’s area

A

in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe

language comprehension

188
Q

Aphasia

A

deficit of language production or comprehension

189
Q

Broaca’s (expressive) aphasia

A

speech comprehension is intact, but speaking it is reduced or absent

190
Q

Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia

A

comprehension of speech if lost, so they speak nonsensical sounds and word combos devoid of meaning. Think they are speaking but are not

191
Q

Conduction Aphasia

A

when the arcutate fasciculus if affected. So, the patient cannot repeat something that has been said, as the connection between broaca’s and wericke’s is lost.

MCAT Psych / Soc (5 decks)

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