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Coasts Flashcards

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1
Q

What type of a system is a coastline?

A

Open system

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2
Q

Example of an input into a coastal environment:

A

Wind, precipitation, waves, pollution, river flow

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3
Q

Example of an output of a coastal environment:

A

Ocean currents, rip tides, evaporation, sediment transfer (via longshore drift)

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4
Q

Example of a store in a coastal environment:

A

Beach, sand dunes, spits, bars, caves, salt marshes etc…

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5
Q

Example of a flow/transfer in terms of coastal environments:

A
  • Wind blowing sand
  • Longshore drift
  • Mass movement processes
  • Weathering
  • Erosion
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6
Q

What are the 3 types of weathering?

A
  • Mechanical/Physical
  • Biological
  • Chemical
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7
Q

What are examples of geomorphological processes?

A
  • Weathering
  • Mass movement
  • Erosion
  • Transportation
  • Deposition
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8
Q

What are the main types of erosion?

A
  • Hydraulic action
  • Wave quarrying
  • Corrasion
  • Abrasion
  • Cavitation
  • Solution/corrosion
  • Attrition
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9
Q

Define dynamic equilibrium (in terms of coasts)

A

A state of balance within a constantly changing coastal system.

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10
Q

What factors affect wave energy?

A
  • Strength of the wind
  • Duration of the wind
  • Fetch (distance of open water over which the wind blows)
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11
Q

Key characteristics of constructive waves, inc:
- Formation
- Wavelength
- Frequency
- Swash/backwash characteristics
- Wave characteristics
- Effect on beach

A
  • Formed by distant weather systems in the open ocean.
  • Long wavelength
  • 6 to 9 per minute
  • Strong swash, weak backwash.
  • Low waves which surge up the beach.
  • Gentle beach profile
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12
Q

Key characteristics of destructive waves, inc:
- Formation
- Wavelength
- Frequency
- Swash/backwash characteristics
- Wave characteristics
- Effect on beach

A
  • Localised storm events.
  • Short wavelength
  • 11 to 16 per minute
  • Weak swash, strong backwash.
  • High waves which plunge onto the beach.
  • Steep beach profile
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13
Q

What type of wave is more common in the summer?

A

Constructive

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14
Q

Key characteristics of high energy coastlines:

A
  • More powerful, destructive waves (large fetch).
  • Rocky headlands.
  • Rate of erosion exceeds rate of deposition.
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15
Q

Key characteristics of low energy coastlines:

A
  • Less powerful, constructive waves.
  • Sheltered, fairly sandy areas (with low fetch).
  • Landforms of deposition.
  • Rate of deposition exceeds rate of erosion.
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16
Q

What is wave refraction?

A

The process by which waves turn and lose energy around a headland; the wave energy is focused around a headland, causing erosive features here.
The waves then dissipate in bays, forming beaches.

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17
Q

What is corrasion?

A

Sand/pebbles hurled against cliffs by waves.

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18
Q

What is abrasion?

A

Rocks hurled against cliffs by waves.

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19
Q

What is attrition?

A

The smoothing and reducing of angular rock fragments into pebbles, shingle and eventually sand particles.

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20
Q

What is corrosion/solution?

A

When mildly acidic saltwater causes alkaline rock (e.g. chalk and limestone) to erode.

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21
Q

What is hydraulic action?

A

Waves break against a cliff face and water forces itself into cracks - compressing the air inside.

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22
Q

What is cavitation?

A

The opening of cavities within cliffs

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23
Q

What is chemical weathering?

A

When rain and/or seawater containing chemicals react with the chemical compounds in the rock, altering its structure.

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24
Q

What is mechanical/physical weathering?

A

The breakdown of rocks due to exertion of physical forces (without chemical changes taking place).

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25
Q

What is biological weathering?

A

Organic activity breaking down rocks; typically through living organisms such as plants and animals.

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26
Q

Examples of mechanical weathering:

A
  • Freeze-thaw weathering
  • Salt crystallisation
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27
Q

What is freeze-thaw weathering?

A

A type of mechanical weathering whereby water enters cracks in a cliff and freezes overnight, expanding in volume, growing cracks in the cliff and making it more vulnerable to other erosional processes.

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28
Q

What is salt crystallisation?

A

A type of mechanical weathering whereby seawater evaporates, leaving salt crystals to grow over time, widening cracks in the cliff and making it more vulnerable to other erosional processes.

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29
Q

Examples of chemical weathering:

A
  • Carbonation
  • Oxidation
  • Solution
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30
Q

What is carbonation?

A

Carbon dioxide in moisture in the air reacts with carbonate minerals in rock, creating carbonic acid.

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31
Q

What is oxidation?

A

Reaction of minerals in rock with atmospheric oxygen. Iron compounds begin to rust and crumble.

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32
Q

Examples of biological weathering:

A
  • Plant roots
  • Birds
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33
Q

What are the 3 main types of rock?

A
  • Igneous
  • Metamorphic
  • Sedimentary
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34
Q

What is the definition of erosion?

A

The breakdown and subsequent removal and transportation of material.

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35
Q

What is the definition of mass movement?

A

The movement of consolidated material (solid rock) and unconsolidated material (clay and soil) due to gravity.

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36
Q

What are the 4 key types of transportation?

A
  • Traction
  • Saltation
  • Suspension
  • Solution
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37
Q

What is traction?

A

When large particles like boulders are pushed along the sea bed by the force of the water.

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38
Q

What is saltation?

A

Pebble sized particles are bounced along the sea bed by the force of water.

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39
Q

What is suspension?

A

Small particles like silt and clay are carried along in the water without touching the sea bed.

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40
Q

What is solution?

A

Soluble materials dissolve in the water and are carried along.

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41
Q

What type of rock erodes the slowest (and at what rate)?

A

Igneous
- Less than 0.1cm/year

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42
Q

What type of rock erodes the fastest (and at what rate)?

A

Sedimentary
- 0.5 to 10cm/year

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43
Q

How do waves form?

A
  • Wind moving across surface causes frictional drag, resulting in a circular motion of water.
  • As the seabed gets shallower, the wavelength shortens and velocity decreases, but the wave height increases.
  • This causes water to back up from behind the wave until the wave breaks.
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44
Q

What are the main sources of sediment?

A
  • Rivers
  • Cliff erosion
  • Longshore drift
  • Wind
  • Glaciers (melting)
  • Waves, tides and currents (offshore)
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45
Q

What is a sediment cell?

A

A stretch of coastline, usually bordered by two headlands, where the movement of sediment is more or less contained.

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46
Q

What is the difference between erosion and weathering?

A

Weathering breaks down rocks in-situ (without displacing them), whilst erosion displaces the rocks.

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47
Q

What are the 5 main types of mass movement?
- Is the ground wet or dry when they occur?

A
  • Mudflow - Wet
  • Runoff - Wet
  • Landslide - Dry or wet
  • Rockfall - Dry
  • Soil creep - Wet
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48
Q

What is a concordant coastline?

A

A coast where layers of differing rock types run parallel to the coast. Results in the formation of coves.

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49
Q

What is a discordant coastline?

A

A coast where layers of differing rock types run at right angles to the coast (perpendicular). Results in the formation of headlands and bays.

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50
Q

How does a wave-cut notch form?

A

When waves erode a cliff, the erosion concentrates on the high tide line. Hydraulic action and corrasion create the wave-cut notch through this.

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51
Q

How does a wave-cut platform form?

A

As a wave-cut notch becomes deeper, the cliff face becomes unstable and collapses, leaving behind a platform which builds up over time, creating a wave-cut platform.

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52
Q

When are wave-cut platforms usually exposed?

A

At low tide.

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53
Q

Example of a negative feedback loop at a coastline:

A

A negative feedback loop can develop when a wide wave-cut platform dissipates the energy of waves before it can reach the cliff. This slows erosion of the cliff and therefore the rates of retreat slows.

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54
Q

What is a tombolo?

A

A bar or beach that connects the mainland to an offshore island.

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55
Q

How are tombolos formed?

A

When wave refraction off the offshore island reduces wave velocity, leading to deposition of sediment on either side.

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56
Q

What is longshore drift also known as?

A

Littoral drift

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57
Q

What does SMP stand for?

A

Shoreline Management Plan

58
Q

What does ICZM stand for?

A

Integrated Coastal Zone Management

59
Q

What are the 2 different beach types?

A
  • Swash aligned
  • Drift aligned
60
Q

What is a swash aligned beach?

A

Waves approach parallel to the shore. Wave refraction can reduce the wave speed resulting in a beach with larger sediment.

61
Q

What is a drift aligned beach?

A

Waves approach at an angle, resulting in longshore drift moving sediment along the beach, potentially forming a spit. The end of the beach will have smaller sediment because it will become smoother the more it moves.

62
Q

Order of coastal zones from ocean to land:

A
  • Offshore
  • Nearshore
  • Foreshore
  • Backshore
63
Q

What coastal zone lies between the high tide and low tide mark?

A

Foreshore

64
Q

What is the nearshore zone also known as?

A

Breaker zone

65
Q

How deep is the nearshore/breaker zone?

A

5-10m

66
Q

What is located in the backshore zone?

A

Storm beach

67
Q

What is the foreshore zone also known as?

A

Surf zone

68
Q

What is the offshore zone beyond the influence of?

A

Waves

69
Q

What zone is the maximum spring tide located?

A

Backshore

70
Q

What zone are sand ridges and runnels found?

A

Foreshore

71
Q

What zone are berms found?

A

Backshore

72
Q

What is a spit?

A

A long, narrow depositional landform made of sand/shingle which extends from the land to the sea on a drift aligned beach.

73
Q

Examples of depositional landforms:

A

Beach
Spit
Tombolo
Barrier beach/bar
Sand dunes
Estuarine mudflats
Saltmarshes

74
Q

Examples of erosional landforms:

A

Headland
Cove
Cave
Arch
Stack
Stump
Wave-cut Platform
Blowhole

75
Q

What is a barrier beach/bar?

A

A beach or spit that extends across a bay to join two headlands. This forms a lagoon behind it.

76
Q

What are offshore bars and how do they form.

A

An offshore region where sand is deposited as the waves don’t have enough energy to carry the sediment to shore.

77
Q

What can offshore bars reduce?

A

Erosion of the mainland

78
Q

How do spits form?

A
  • Sand/shingle is moved along the beach via longshore drift, until the coastline changes in direction (e.g. due to a river estuary)
  • Sediment begins to build up across the mouth, forming a spit.
79
Q

What is a blowhole?

A

A hole in the top of an arch due to wind/wave erosion causing it to collapse.

80
Q

What is a recurved tip?

A

When the end of the spit begins to curve around due to wave refraction carrying sediment to more sheltered water behind the spit.

81
Q

What are berms?

A

A series of small ridges that form near the high tide mark, as a result of constructive wave swash deposition.

82
Q

What are sand ridges and runnels?

A

A series of ridges and troughs running parallel to the coast near the low water mark, as a result of deposition during backwash.

83
Q

Order of sand dune stages from shoreline to inland:

A
  • Embryo dune
  • Fore dune
  • Yellow dune
  • Grey dune
  • Mature dune
84
Q

What can estuarine mudflats develop into?

A

Saltmarshes

85
Q

How do estuarine mudflats form?

A

Develop in estuaries when water flow virtually ceases due to the meeting of river water and tides, leading to heavy deposition. Most of the deposition consists of mud.

86
Q

How do saltmarshes form?

A
  • Mud is deposited via flocculation.
  • Pioneer plants (e.g. cordgrass) that can tolerate inundation and salty water (halophytes) colonise the transition zone between low and hide tide, trapping mud.
  • Mud levels rise above high tide, allowing other vegetation to grow.
  • Soil conditions improve to allow meadows to form.
  • Climactic climax/climax vegetation is reached with shrubs and trees growing.
87
Q

What are saltmarshes?

A

Areas of flat, silty sediments that accumulate around estuaries or lagoons.

88
Q

When are saltmarshes covered?

A

High tide

89
Q

When are saltmarshes exposed?

A

Low tide

90
Q

What plants can tolerate salty conditions?

A

Halophytes

91
Q

What plants can survive in extreme conditions?

A

Xerophytes

92
Q

What conditions are needed for sand dunes to form?

A
  • Large quantities of sand onshore.
  • Large tidal range, allowing sand to dry and be picked up by wind.
  • Dominant onshore winds to blow the sand to the back of the beach.
93
Q

How do sand dunes initially develop?

A

When sand is trapped by debris towards the back of the beach, and vegetation helps to stabilise this sand.

94
Q

Examples of pioneer species in sand dunes:

A
  • Sea rocket
  • Couch grass
95
Q

Where is marram grass typically found?

A

Fore dunes

96
Q

How is marram grass well adapted to its environment?

A

Has long tap roots to seek water, which also stabilise the grass.

97
Q

Define eustatic change:

A

When the sea level itself rises or falls.

98
Q

Define isostatic change:

A

When the land rises or falls, relative to the sea.

99
Q

Does eustatic change occur globally or locally?

A

Globally

100
Q

Does isostatic change occur globally or locally?

A

Locally

101
Q

How does eustatic change occur?

A
  • In cold, glacial periods, water is stored as snow and ice sheets, lowering sea levels.
  • As temperatures rise, ice and snow melts, flowing into rivers and seas, raising sea levels.
102
Q

How does isostatic change occur?

A
  • During glacial periods, the weight of ice sheets (several kilometres thick), makes the land sink (isostatic subsidence).
  • As temperatures rise, the ice sheets melt and the land readjusts and rises (isostatic recovery/rebound).
103
Q

Define isostatic subsidence:

A

Land sinks due to weight of ice sheets.

104
Q

Define isostatic recovery/rebound:

A

Land rises after ice sheets melt, relieving the weight.

105
Q

What is an emergent coastline?

A

When a fall in sea level exposes land previously covered by the sea.

106
Q

What is a submergent coastline?

A

When a rise in sea level floods the coast.

107
Q

What type of coastline are raised beaches found?

A

Emergent coastline

108
Q

What landforms develop at a submergent coastline?

A
  • Rias
  • Fjords
109
Q

How do rias form?

A

When valleys in a dissected upland area are flooded.

110
Q

Where region in England are rias common?

A

South-west England (e.g. Devon)

111
Q

What are fjords?

A

Long, steep sided, U-shaped valleys which have been flooded.

112
Q

Where are rias deepest?

A

At the mouth

113
Q

Where are fjords deepest?

A

Inland (in the middle)

114
Q

What countries are fjords common?

A
  • Norway
  • Chile
  • New Zealand
115
Q

What are Dalmation coasts?

A

Distinctive submergent coasts which have formed due to the flooding of valleys and ridges which were running parallel to the coast, creating offshore islands.

116
Q

What are Dalmation coasts also known as?

A

Pacific Coasts

117
Q

Example of a country with dalmation coasts:

A
  • Croatia
  • Chile
118
Q

What does CBA stand for?

A

Cost-Benefit Analysis

119
Q

Examples of hard engineering techniques:

A
  • Groynes
  • Sea walls
  • Rip rap (rock armour)
  • Revetments
  • Offshore breakwater
120
Q

Examples of soft engineering techniques:

A
  • Beach nourishment
  • Cliff regrading
  • Dune stabilisation
121
Q

What does SSSI stand for?

A

Sites of Special Scientific Interest

122
Q

What are revetments?

A

Sloping wooden, concrete or rock structures designed to break up wave energy.

123
Q

Groynes advantages:

A
  • Not too expensive (£5000 to £10000 each)
  • Builds up the beach
124
Q

Groynes disadvantages:

A
  • Visually unappealing
  • Increases erosion further along the coast by restricting longshore drift.
125
Q

Offshore breakwater advantages:

A
  • Effective at breaking wave energy.
126
Q

Offshore breakwater disadvantages:

A
  • Visually unappealing
  • Potential navigation hazard.
127
Q

Sea walls advantages:

A

Effective protection against erosion.
- Tourism benefits (acts as a promenade).

128
Q

Sea walls disadvantages:

A
  • Wave energy reflected, not absorbed, increasing erosion elsewhere.
  • Expensive to construct and maintain (£6000/metre).
129
Q

Revetments advantages:

A
  • Relatively cheap (£4500/metre).
130
Q

Revetments disadvantages:

A
  • Visually unappealing.
  • Require constant maintenance.
131
Q

Rock armour advantages:

A
  • Relatively cheap and easy to construct and maintain (£1000 to £3000/metre).
132
Q

Rock armour disadvantages:

A
  • Dangerous if climbed upon.
  • Rocks used aren’t local and can therefore look out of place with the local geology.
133
Q

How many sediment cells are there in England and Wales?

A

11

134
Q

What are the 4 options considered in a SMP?

A
  • Hold the line
  • Advance the line
  • Managed retreat/strategic realignment
  • No active intervention
135
Q

Beach nourishment advantages:

A
  • Relatively cheap (£3000/metre)
  • Easy to maintain
  • Tourism benefits
  • Looks natural
136
Q

Beach nourishment disadvantages:

A
  • Could damage local ecosystems.
  • Requires constant maintenance due to longshore drift.
137
Q

Dune stabilisation advantages:

A
  • Cheap (£2 to £20/metre)
  • Creates an important wildlife habitat.
138
Q

Dune stabilisation disadvantages:

A
  • Time consuming (to plant the marram grass).
139
Q

Cliff regrading advantages:

A
  • Cost effective.
  • Can be effective on clay or loose rock where other methods will not work.
140
Q

Cliff regrading disadvantages:

A
  • Causes the cliff to retreat.
141
Q

What is the purpose of an ICZM?

A

To establish sustainable levels of economic/social activity, resolve environmental, social and economic challenges, and protect the coastal environment.
- Provides a more holistic overview of the coast.

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