Cluster (Quiz 3) Flashcards
Lectures 14
1
Q
How many LGBTQ candidates were on the ballot in
November 2022?
A
678 (a record number)
2
Q
What is included on the gender bread person?
A
- Gender identity
- gender expression
- biological sex
- sexual orientation
3
Q
What makes up sexual orientation?
A
- Behavior
- Identity
- Sexual attraction
- sexual fantasy
- Sexual arousal
- Desire (includes attraction, fantasy, arousal)
4
Q
How many people identified as bisexual/lesbian/gay in 2011?
A
– 3.4% of women
- 3.6% of men
5
Q
Describe Gallup polls.
A
- Aim to be representative
- Cell and landline “random digit dial” method
- Other measures to attempt to reach proportionate number of individuals across geography and other variables
- Not completely unbiased (e.g., not all people have phones0
6
Q
In 2021, what did Gallup show about LGBT identification in the U.S.?
A
It ticked up to 7.1%
7
Q
What generation identified as LGBT the most?
A
Generation Z
8
Q
Are more women or men bisexual in the U.S.?
A
Women (women are 6%, men are 2%)
9
Q
Explain the ultimate and proximate explanations.
A
- Ultimate (causation in deep time – evolutionary): Why is the feature present?
- Proximate (causation in “near” time): How does that feature emerge now?
Complementary explanations (you want both and subsets within them for a complete understanding)
10
Q
same-sex sexual behaviors that occur due to constraints are not the true evolutionary puzzles. The evolutionary mystery is…
A
Stable same-sex preference
11
Q
What did Darwin say about inclusive fitness?
A
- Genes will spread over time if they increase an individual’s ability to survive and reproduce
- (increase individual fitness)
12
Q
What insight did Hamilton give for inclusive fitness?
A
- Genes will also spread over time if they cause the
individual to do something that helps other individuals who possess copies of themselves to survive and reproduce - (increase inclusive fitness)
13
Q
Does selection “care” which vehicle (individual) replicates the genes?
A
No, whichever genes are replicated the most
will spread.
14
Q
What is Hamilton’s rule?
A
When rb > c, selection will favor a trait that makes me pay a cost to benefit someone else.
15
Q
In the U.S. is there evidence that gay uncles
help siblings any more than straight uncles?
A
No
16
Q
What are fa’afafine?
A
- third gender (male at birth) individuals attracted to men (”androphilic”)
- The presence of fa’afafine within families is associated
with greater reproduction of their relatives, possibly due
passing along of resources - Samoan study
17
Q
What is the conclusion when asking if kin selection can explain same-sex preference?
A
- No good resolution to the puzzle
- Possibly some fitness advantage to female relatives of androphilic males, offsetting decrement in their own reproduction
18
Q
Does bias differ by sex of principal investigator?
A
No
19
Q
What are the types of sexual arousal?
A
- Subjective
- Genital
20
Q
What are the conclusions of the experiment on men’s sexual arousal?
A
- Men’s sexual arousal is category specific
- Consistent results of genital and subjective
arousal
21
Q
What are the conclusions of the experiment on women’s sexual arousal?
A
- Female genital sexual arousal (at least as measured!) is not category-specific; women respond about equally to all stimuli.
- Subjective arousal patterns are also quite
different than men’s. - Dissociation between subjective and genital arousal—what should we “believe”?
22
Q
What are some differences between male and female non-heterosexuals?
A
- Timing: Men tend to know earlier and tend not to change their orientation, whereas women often do change (more later)
- Types: Men show bimodal distribution in attraction,
suggesting distinct types - Identification: Among non-hetero individuals: women more often identify as bi (than men) and men as exclusively gay (than women)
23
Q
Describe sexual fluidity.
A
- More female bisexual arousal than male bisexual arousal in Chivers et al. study
- Different time courses: Men tend to “know” early in lives; women later
- More variation over the lifespans of women as compared with men
- Lesbians are more likely to have had heterosexual sex than gay men
- Suggests that explanations for sexual orientation in men and women will probably be very different
24
Q
What are some common themes within
each sex?
A
– largely “sex-typical” mate preferences
– Trajectory and manifestation of sexual orientation shared within each sex
25
Is there variation in sexual orientation and
acceptance of variation
Yes, there is growing variatio
26
Describe harmful cultural practices.
-“discriminatory practices committed regularly over long periods of time that communities and societies begin to consider them acceptable”
-Term developed by the United Nations
- Focus on practices of “seemingly blatant forms of male domination of women.”
- Adapted into policy by broader development community
27
What are the 2 definitions of ethnocentrism?
1) The tendency to use your own culture as the standard by which you judge and evaluate other cultures
2) A belief, attitude or mindset that holds that one’s own ethnic group is superior to all others.
28
What are some issues with the current framework of HCP?
- Implies subordination of women is limited to the Global South
- Blaming poor well-being on “moral failings”
- Underemphasizes broader socioeconomic and structural drivers of behavior (poverty, lack of alternatives)
29
If the Polygyny Threshold Model works, what should we expect?
If the PTM works, we should expect that RS of polygynously married women will be equal to or greater than that of monogamously married women
30
What do we see in the Tanzania test of PTM?
* At the population level, communities with more polygyny have worse outcomes
* But if we look within villages then polygynous households do as well or better than monogamous households
* Also in line with the PTM, we see that within
villages polygynous households are wealthier
31
What are some benefits and costs of polygyny?
* Benefits: labor cooperation, child-care help
* Costs: jealousy over resources or access to husband
32
What conclusions can we draw from the polygyny case study?
* Polygyny can be harmful to women and children, particularly when it occurs within a context of coercion and lack of female autonomy
* However, in other circumstances, when women have more control over marital decisions, polygyny can lead to equal or greater benefits than monogamous marriage
* More work needs to be done looking at underlying drivers of behavior like poverty and inequality, in order to understand whether polygyny a symptom or a cause of poor outcomes for women and children
33
What are some benefits of early marriage?
* Where mortality rates are high, earlier marriage and
reproduction could protect overall reproductive success
* High mortality rates also mean early marriage could help
ensure kin support in raising children
* Marriage can lead to financial security
* May reduce pre-marital sex and pregnancy, where
children born out-of-wedlock may not have the same
rights and resources as those born within marriage
34
What are some conclusions from the child marriage case study?
* Women who marry early can face serious limitations to education and earnings
* As with polygyny, it is important to think about other factors that could lead to these correlations
* What is a “child” and what is “early” are culturally relative terms that should be considered
* In some cultures, there are benefits to marrying early
* Choice matters: where women are able to choose whether to enter early marriages, their outcomes are better
35
What is FGMC?
* FGMC is the partial or total removal of the external
genitalia of girls and women for non-medical reasons
* Little doubt that practice is harmful
1) Clitoridectomy: removal of the clitoris and
clitoral hood
2) Intermediate Infibulation: Removal of clitoris
and cutting of labia minora, often also cutting of
labia majora to narrow vaginal opening
3) Total Infibulation: Clitoris and inner labia
removed, outer labia cut and sewn together
36
Why FGMC?
* Signaling sexual fidelity and paternity certainty
* Controlling women’s desire for extra-pair sex
* Desirable trait in a mate (earlier marriage/higher brideprice)
* Promoting group identity for women
37
What are some conclusions from the FGMC case study?
* FGMC is more certainly harmful than the other practices we discussed
* Explanations for it rest on issues of control and autonomy over female sexuality
* There may be benefits to women who have been cut within high-cutting communities
38
Harmful Cultural Practices are often linked to _____________
- sex and gender.
- (Sexual selection theory can help
us understand why these practices
have arisen and are maintained)
39
In many cases, ______________ is critical to determining whether a practice is harmful in a particular context
female choice and autonomy
40
What is the sexual division of labor?
The situation where males and females in a society
perform different, and often complementary tasks
41
What is the Man the Hunter theory?
- The hunting of large animals by men was the major stimulus for the evolution of hominid behavior
- "Man is man, and not a chimpanzee, because for millions upon millions of evolving years we killed for a living"
- Killing animals fostered development of intelligence, technology, language etc.
- women were portrayed as passive, sedentary and relatively unimportant
42
What is Brown's explanation for the sexual DOL?
Women have to balance two key jobs...
* Acquiring resources
* Child-care
43
How does the level of women's workloads vary in the Nepal case study?
- Women worked less in the winter when they were pregnant or lactating
- This is the time when workloads are lower anyway
- At times, women will share childminding responsibilities in the fields, or leave their child at home with a sibling
- AKA: During time of year when there is the most work to be done, everyone works pretty similarly but during times when work needed is lower then pregnant and lactating women work less
44
Define the 2 competing theories for the sexual division of labor.
- Cooperation: Men and women cooperate by specializing in particular subsistence activities in order to maximize household productivity and provision offspring
- Conflict: Men and women have conflicting reproductive goals and may not always be working as a team
45
Describe the cooperative model of provisioning.
- Paired provisioning of offspring
- Cooperating maximizes the RS of both sexes (both parents have to participate)
- Hinges on males (males will engage if cost-benefit ratio for providing for offspring is better than for mating)
46
According to the cooperative model, why do they specialize, and not both forage the same way?
- Specialization should offer greater net benefits and/or fewer costs than if both partners foraged for the same
thing...
* Greater nutrient complementarity
* Reduced risk of overall failure
47
What are the predictions of the cooperative model of the DOL?
- Specialization should increase foraging returns over non-specialization
- Males should favor their own households with their resources
- Men should have high payoffs for fathering
- Male provisioning should be correlated with a high degree of paternity certainty
48
What evidence is there of male provisioning?
Direct Provisioning:
* Hiwi children receive critical amounts/types of food from fathers
* Fathers also provide a significant amount of direct care among the Hiwi
Indirect Provisioning
* Ache men share the meat they get widely
* But children of better hunters get more food than other children
49
Describe the conflict model of the division of labor?
* A division of labor can arise because mates have conflicting reproductive interests, where one sex gains more from investing in mating than parenting and the other more from parenting than mating.
* Men and women are doing different things because they have different non-coordinating goals
* Sex differences will be stronger where men benefit more from investing in mating opportunities
* Mating parenting tradeoff shifts choice of productive
activities
50
Compare women's and men's resources under the sexual DOL.
Women’s Resources
* More predictable return rates
* Sharing is mostly within household
* Have higher processing costs
Men’s Resources
* Less predictable return rates
* More difficult to acquire prey
* Returns are more widely shared
51
Who is Everett Hughes?
He said that gender is a master category.
52
Gordon Allport said that categories are nouns _____________.
that cut slices
53
What are primitive categories and what traits do they have?
- Race, Age, and Gender
- observable and consequential
- Stimulus-driven, pre-attentive, and seemingly automatic
- Desire clarity; Negative effects involving ambiguity
54
Discuss the primacy of gender.
- First social category applied to other people and oneself (gender identity)
- Focal aspect of socialization
- Relates to multiple motives
- Automatically used to think about people and some inanimate entities
- Interacts with (moderates) effects of other categories (intersectionality)
55
Describe correlational research.
- Assess the nature and strength of relationship between factors
- Use various data to test possible relationships predicted by theory
- ex: gender wage gap, level religion vs. attitude towards transgender ppl
56
What are some issues with correlational research.
Reverse causality:
A → B
A ← B
Third variables:
C → A & B
(ex: cigarette correlation with cancer)
57
Is sex/sexual orientation research correlational or experimental?
All research involving gender (sex, sexual orientation) comparisons is correlational
58
Describe experimental research.
- Independent and dependent variables in experimental research
- IV manipulated to see effect on DV
- Key is random assignment
59
Why does random assignment matter in experimental research?
Since the only difference between conditions reflects the manipulated variable, any differences in the measured variable between conditions likely reflects the influence of the manipulated variable
60
Discuss the development of experimental methods.
- Long history of measurement and description
- Short history of manipulated variables
- First experiment: Captain James Lind realized that scurvy resulted when sailors didn't have citrus
61
What evidence is there of early gender categorization?
Miller:
- Miller (1983) had children (2 mo. vs 6 mo.) listen to vocal recordings of a man or woman
- After habituation, voice remained same person (control) or changed to another person of same sex or different sex
- Assessed visual engagement
- 6 months old made differentiation in gendered stimuli
“Who Said What?” Paradigm:
- Within-category versus between-category errors (more within category)
- They could tell you what gender (what category) said it but not which individual
- fewer errors as they got older
Schutts et al.:
- had 3-yr old children indicate preferences for people & objects associated with children of different sex or race
- Girls emulated choices of girls, boys emulated choices of boys (Not as drastic with race for these kids)
62
Describe basic gender identity in children.
- Self-labels involving gender binary by 3 years of age.
- Notions of gender constancy develop by age 6
63
Describe judgments of same-gender and other-gender similarity in children.
- Assumed strongly correlated, but usually only weakly correlated (~ -.4).
- Bem (1981) argued one can perceive oneself as similar to both genders—psychological androgyny
64
What is gender centrality?
The importance of gender in self conceptions
65
What is gender contentedness? Describe it in children.
- Satisfaction with one’s own gender identity.
- Gender-discontent children often possess cross-gender interests and traits
66
What is perceived pressure for gender conformity?
Concerns with consequences for gender atypical actions
67
Describe Kristina Olson's findings so far in the Trans Youth Project.
- tracking ~350 children who self-identify as transgender in longitudinal study
- Contrary to common fears, transgender children cannot be generally characterized as confused, defiant, or oppositional regarding their gender identity
- Performance on indirect tasks should they typically
identify more strongly with their chosen gender then
their cisgender category
- Low frequency of “retransitioning” (~ 7%)
68
What is gender socialization?
The process by which individuals develop, refine and learn to “perform” gender through internalizing gender norms and roles as they interact with key agents of socialization, such as family, social networks and other social institutions.
69
Which system of gender socialization is common cross-culturally?
Binary system
70
Give some examples of variation across cultures in the number of gender categories and in the tolerance of category switching.
- Margaret Mead’s Sex and Temperament in New Guinea
- Native American tradition of two spirit persons
- Xaniths of Oman
- Bugis of Indonesia recognize five different genders
71
What are some characteristics/ways of gender socialization?
- Begins at birth and last through childhood
- Activity engagement and reinforcement/punishment (ex: homophily)
- Language
- Education and career
- Media influences
72
Why does gender categorization persist?
Because many motives, endeavors, and pursuits
involve gender...
- Care provision in infancy and childhood
- Mating motives (for all)
- Division of Labor
73
What gender is a square associated with?
Men
74
What gender is a circle associtaed with?
Women
75
What gender is a triangle associated with?
Both (but depends on direction)
76
What gender is agency associated with?
Men
77
What gender is being communal associated with?
Women
78
Was there an association between the prime and the stimulus in the IAT priming paradigm study?
- Yes
- When there’s an inconsistency between the prime and the shape, people take longer to categorize
- People were faster at saying a square is a square when there was a male prime
- People were faster at saying a circle is a circle with a female prime
79
Does gender categorization occur in isolation?
No, gender is constrained by and constrains the interpretation and implications of other central aspects of identity.
80
Is race gendered?
- Yes...
- Black associated with men and male traits
- Asian more associated with women and female traits
81
What is gender in this context?
a dimension of social judgment that appears psychologically obligatory and is consequential both for the self and for perceptions of others
82
What are stereotypes?
Cognitive structures containing our knowledge, beliefs, and expectancies about a social group
83
What are some stereotypes about stereotypes? Are they accurate?
- They are inaccurate
- They are rigid
- They are negative
- These are all empirical questions…Not all stereotypes are inaccurate, rigid, or negative (although they often are)
84
Do we need stereotypes?
Yes, they are necessary for social functioning.
85
What are the two fundamental dimensions that specific attributes can be arrayed on?
- Competence (Eagly separates competence from agency)
- Warmth (i.e., communion)
86
Which gender is most strongly associated with the following...
- communion
- warmth
- agency
- competence
- Women are most strongly associated with communion (e.g., other-focused, caring) and warmth (e.g., loving, caring)
- Men are most strongly associated with agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous)
- Mixed evidence regarding competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), although debates about whether competence is a unitary construct
87
What factors affect variation in treatment/outcomes?
* Wife order
* Relation of co-wives (sororal polygyny)
* Living context (separate or joint households)
* Legal status of secondary wives
* Level of choice (partner choice, divorce)
WRLLL!
88
Where is child marriage most common?
South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa
89
Where is FGMC most common?
- Most common in Africa
- also in Middle East and Asia
