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A A A Level Biology > Cloning and Biotechnology > Flashcards

Cloning and Biotechnology Flashcards

1
Q

what is vegetative propagation

A

Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction that produces progeny by any vegetative propagule (rhizome, tubers, suckers etc.) without gamete formation and fertilization of male and female gametes
»>produces clones/identical
surviving adverse conditions

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2
Q

name some examples of vegetative propogation

A

> > stolons- side runners (peg down)
runners- similar to stolons
rhizomes-underground (ginger) pull stem up from underground but any rhizomes left under soil will grow plant again
underground stems- for food storage and reproduction eg)tubers from potato store starch for energy but also can be replanted, bulbs, rhizomes, corms

look up pics of all

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3
Q

what are cuttings and how carried out

A

take a side shoot (which can eb dipped in rooting powder auxins) and planted into compost and grown. placed plastic bag on top to reduce water loss by excess transpiration

can create open wound for infection in parent

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4
Q

What is grafting? how is it done

A

graft top part (scion) with one chosen characteristic onto a bottom part (root stock) and wrap and wax to prevent infection and plant will have characteristic of both plants

-eg many apples on one tree of different varieties

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5
Q

what is layering in plants

A

using peg and stake

The development of roots on a stem while the stem is still attached to the parent plant is called layering. A layer is the rooted stem following detachment (removal) from the parent plant. Some plants propagate naturally by layering, but sometimes plant propagators assist the process.

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6
Q

which tissue of a plant is used in a tissue culture

A

meristematic tissue- constantly dividing undifferentiated cells that can become any cell

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7
Q

what is tissue culture

A

aka micropropagation
-cells from meristematic tissue placed on agar plate
-any wool placed on top allows air in for respiring but stops infection
-produces multiple embryos all identical
plantlets are placed in soi

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8
Q

step by step of how tissue culture is carried out

A

> meristematic tissue taken shoot tip/bud
sterile conditions + sample sterilised
explant placed in sterile culture medium with plant growth hormones such as auxins+cytokinins
mitosis stimulated
cells proliferated - callus formed (mass of identical cells)
callus divided up with forceps- nurtients+hormones produced- differentiation occurs
plantlets form
plantlets potted into compost-grow in greenhouse and harden off
new plant for selling

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9
Q

advantages of tissue culture/plant cloning

A

-rapid production of large number plants
-known genetic makeup
-disease free/resistant
high yield
-control time of year plants are produced by precisly controlling conditions
-seedless plants/sterile proudced
-overcome problem of growing difficult plants from seeds eg orchid

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10
Q

disadvantages of tissue culture/plant cloning

A
  • all plants have same genetic information so are vulnerable to same disease/ pest
  • no new beneficial characteristics will arise as they do by chance naturally (natural selection doesn’t occur)
  • no variation means gene pool reduced
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11
Q

what are natural cloning examples in animals

A

binary fission-splitting apart similar in concept to the mitosis that happens in multicellular organisms
budding-hydra - regrowing heads buds grow on sides of body that develop into genetically identical clones
fragmentation-starfish arm regenerates into new organism

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12
Q

describe difference in reproduction in aphids in seasons

A

-sexual in autumn and winter
asexual in pathenogenetic female colonies
»>interspecific competition dominates and rapid reprouduction phase is advantageous

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13
Q

how are identical twins formed

Monozygotic

A

cleavage furrow of fertilised ovum to produce two separate embryos
one sperm and one egg fertilised and undergo mitosis if zygote splits in two they are identical
»shared placenta

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14
Q

how are dizygotic twins formed

A

2 dif sperm and 2 dif egg genetically distinct

|&raquo_space;separate placenta

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15
Q

how is arteficial embryo splitting carried out

A

> > high value pedigree animals used as egg and sperm donors eg cattle and sheep
cells from early embryo are separated
each cell can potentially grow into an individual but all will be genetically identical clones

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16
Q

how is an identical clone produced in a pig

A

1>cells from animal are stored in lab to prevent growth/division
2>the nucleus is extracted from donor cell and fused with an empty egg cell with no nucleus
»»>which came from the unfertilised egg that has had nucleus removed from a sow (which will be the surrogate)
3>fused cells begins dividing normally and matures for a few days
4>embryo placed in uterus of surrogate mother
5> animal born has same DNA as donor animal

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17
Q

pros of animal cloning

A
  • multiplication of animals
  • recovery of endangered species
  • production of transgenic animals
  • replicate animals for research
  • produce animals w/ desirable traits
  • solution to infertility
18
Q

cons of animal cloning

A
  • undermines concept of reproduction and family
  • playing god
  • weakens diversity and ability of adaption
  • ethical and moral principles
  • concerns about eugenics
  • confuses personal identity of clone and psychological development of clone
19
Q

how was dolly the sheep made

A

> donor cell taken from sheeps udder with nucleus and egg cell taken from an adult female sheep and nucleus removed so it is ennucleated
these are fused through a process such as electrofusion
the fused cell begins dividing normally
embryo is placed in uterus of surrogate mother
embryo develops into a clone of the sheep who gave the donor nucleus

20
Q

name 3 advantages of vegetative propagation in agriculture

A
  • higher crop field in a shorter/quicker amount of time
  • plants can be grown any time of year regardless of season
  • easier to harvest
21
Q

where is the tissue that is removed coming from for plant clones

what is this tissue sample called

A

meristematic tissue from axial buds or shoot tips

sample called a explant

22
Q

what is used to sterilise the plant when preparing to clone

hormones stimulate mitosis which forms a mass of cells called:

A

ethanol

Callus

23
Q

compare the equipment and techniques of cuttings with those used for micropropagation

A

cutting needs less expensive equipment

micropropagation needs more skilled people to do it

24
Q

what are the advantages of using yeast for biotechnology

A

no welfare issues involved

  • large range of availability and fungi/bacteria
  • cheap nutrients
  • short life cycle/ but reproduce rapidly
  • no rules on genetic engineering
  • all they need is food source, low temps and oxygen
25
Q

Name some aseptic techniques

A

> autoclave to sterilise equipment or oven to heat
antisepic hand hygiene, alcohol
sterile gloves, sterile drapes, sterile masks, protective wrappers
sterile nutrients, can sterilise air with UV
lid or wool stopper
limit entry to aseptic field/ one person
sterilise inoculating loop

26
Q

what is indirect food production

A

microbe acting on other foods eg) yeast on bread/cheese/yogurt

27
Q

what is direct food production

A

you eat the microbe itself eg Quorn

28
Q

describe components making up a fermenter

A

> impellars - keep movement inside reactor so no microbes sink and all get oxygen
harvest line lets out microbes
vent lets out CO2 waste product this stops pessure building
air filter stops microbes getting in
yeast sterilised with steam
controlled temps and pH so enzymes at optimum temp
cold water can be passed through bottom

29
Q

describe what a batch fermenter is

A

> ‘closed system’ nutrients only added at start and product removed at end
easy to set up and maintain so most used method of fermentation
quality between batches differs but if goes wrong only one batch effected eg) contamination
can create different batches
product of growth is either biomass/metabolites
pressure steam wash to sterilise

30
Q

describe what a continuous fermenter

A

> exponential growth of microbes is maintained in fermented for prolonged periods
addition of fresh nutrients and continues until vessel full and product continuously removed
consistent quality
contamination effects all
high productivity
maintain optimum growth environment

31
Q

what is one advantage and disadvantage of using clones to test a treatment for a disease

A

+ genetically identical so all react the same

-clone could have unknown health problem

32
Q

what are potential applications of adult cell cloning

A

> recovery of endangered species
produce high value pedigree animals with desireable characteristics
investigate treatment of disease

33
Q

what is SCNT

A

somatic cell nuclear fusion

this is like dolly the sheep uses electrofusion

34
Q

what 3 factors should be taken into acount when comparing SCNT among different animal

A

> same stage of development of surrogate mother
general health of all surrogates and mothers
conditions surrogates kept in
number of eggs inseminated in each surrogate mother

35
Q

which reasons could mean that dolly didnt die due to the age of donor nucleus

A

> dolly was individual so health problems could be unrelated to cloning
might be different between animals

36
Q

what are the phases of the growth of microbes according to the numbers of bacteria against/ time graph
4 stages

A

lag phase
log/exponential growth phase
stationary phase
death/ logarithmic decline phase

37
Q

what happens during the lag phase

A

slow growth
no. deaths = no. births
beginning to synthesise enzymes to break down nutrient (settling in)

38
Q

what happens during the log/ exponential growth phase

A

> faster growth rate than any other time
population increases exponentially
birth> death

continuous fermentation held here

39
Q

what happens during the stationary phase

why might this be happening?

A

birth= death rate
>nutrients such as oxygen may be running out so less growth
>intraspecific competition (can’t distiguish between bacteria and each other)
>toxic build up of waste products
>temp going up

40
Q

what happens during the death/ logarithmic decline phase

A

death> birth rate
> population goes down
> limitting factors could have increased to point where death rate exceeds birth

41
Q

what are the two types of cell counting and examples of each

A

DIRECT CELL COUNT

  • counting chambers
  • electronic counters
  • on membrane filters

A A A Level Biology (22 decks)

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