Civil Rights - 1945-55 & MLK Flashcards
1
Q
What were the Jim Crow laws?
A
Legal segregation in the South, denying black Americans access to facilities used by white Americans
2
Q
What was ‘Segregation of the heart?’
A
Unspoken racial étiquette, segregating blacks and whites
3
Q
What were the Voting Rights in the South?
A
‘grandfather clause’ - only voting if their grandfathers had been able to
literacy tests - not applied fairly to all citizens
4
Q
What was Plessy v. Ferguson?
A
Homer Plessy claimed that segregation was unlawful because all citizens were guaranteed equal rights under the 14th Amendment - he had been arrested for sitting in a white-only area of a train.
5
Q
What were the consequences of Plessy v. Ferguson?
A
Legalised segregation, saying it was legal to treat people in a way that was ‘separate but equal’. Resulted in Jim Crow laws being enforced all through the South
6
Q
How many black Americans fought in the second world war?
A
1.2 million
7
Q
How were blacks segregated during the war?
A
Different canteens
Different transport
Many employed as cleaners/cooks
Given less training & worse equipment
8
Q
Explain the experience of Black soldiers in Europe
A
Experience of European society during their stays in Britain and France, where there was no formal segregation and they were treated as heroes
9
Q
What were the 4 basic freedoms?
A
Freedom of speech
Freedom of religion
Freedom from want
Freedom from fear
10
Q
What was the ‘Double V’ sign?
A
Fighting for 2 victories:
victory overseas
victory over racism
11
Q
What were the effect of the war on the black’s views?
A
Boosted their self-esteem: after risking their lives for their country they expected recognition for their achievements.
They returned to America to challenge injustice
12
Q
What was the change in number of blacks in the North before and after the war?
A
Before the war: 1/4 of blacks
After the war: almost 1/3 of blacks
13
Q
What was the economic effect of the war on black Americans?
A
Allowed them to play a major role in the country's war effort. 48% of the black population was urban (higher paid jobs) Campaigning activists (e.g A. Philip Randolph) showed that putting pressure on the government could enforce racial equality.
14
Q
How many blacks in the south could vote before the war?
A
2%
15
Q
How many blacks in the south could votes after the war?
A
15%
16
Q
What was the effect of the war on lynchings in the south?
A
They increased
17
Q
Name an African American elected to Congress and say when
A
William Dawson (1943)
18
Q
Name an African American appointed to federal judge and say when
A
William Haist (1949)
19
Q
How many blacks migrated to the North during the war and why did they go?
A
500,000
In search for better conditions and work in industrial cities, e.g Chicago
20
Q
What were the Detroit Riots?
A
3 day long conflict between blacks and whites in Detroit. Blacks believed it to be a response to radical discrimination in terms of jobs and housing as well as ongoing police brutality towards innocent blacks.
21
Q
What are the Detroit Riots and example of?
A
How even in the North, blacks were subject to discrimination and violence
22
Q
What percentage of black housing after the war was found to be substandard compared to the percentage of white housing in Washington (south)?
A
40% compared to 12%
23
Q
What were the social conditions in the north after the war?
A
Most facilities were not segregated, so blacks and whites were more likely to mix.
However, because blacks were poorer they were divided in regards to accommodation.
24
Q
When did Harry Truman become President?
A
1945
25
Give 2 reasons why Harry Truman became committed to challenging southern racism
1. Was deeply moved by stories of black war veterans who were victims of racist attacks after fighting in the war
2. Aware of the growing importance of the black vote to the Democratic party
26
What was the effect of the Cold Warn on Truman's commitment to civil rights?
He believed that America had a moral duty to fight Communism and promote freedom, which he couldn't do if racial segregation existed in America
27
What was 'To Secure These Rights'?
The President's Committee on Civil Rights' report examining the experiences of racial minorities in America. It highlights the problems facing blacks, and proposed radical changes to make America a more just society
28
What were the 6 problems highlighted in 'To Secure These Rights'?
1. Lynching
2. Police brutality (sometimes used to force blacks to admit to crimes they hadn't committed)
3. Voting Rights
4. Discrimination in armed forces
5. Employment and education
6. Health
29
How many lynchings had there been between 1882 and 1945?
Over 300
30
How many blacks in the south voted in the 1944 Presidential elections?
18%
31
List 3 recommendations of 'To Secure These Rights'
1. Reorganising the Civil Rights Section of the Department of Justice so that regional offices could enforce civil rights on a local level
2. Civil Rights Section of the Department of Justice deserved more govt. funding
3. The federal govt. shouldn't fund organisations that discriminate on the grounds of race
32
What was wrong with 'To Secure These Rights'?
It was too unrealistic; many of its recommendations were unworkable, such as local police protecting blacks in the south - they were extremely racist and didn't want to aid the blacks
33
What was a reason for Truman not being able to achieve everything the report recommended?
Lack of support in Congress
34
What was Truman's 'Fair Deal' programme?
Initiative aimed to tackle some economic inequalities, e.g higher minimum wage
35
What were Southern Democrats and what were their views?
Dixiecrats
| They refused to support Truman
36
How was Truman ineffective?
The FEPC was under-funded and lacked support from senior civil servants.
His Fair Deal housing programme was poorly conceived; fewer buildings were built than originally anticipated.
His initiatives were not comprehensive enough to deal with the racism that existed at all levels of American society.
37
When was the 'Golden Years of the NAACP'?
The decade after the Second World War
38
What were the NAACP's 3 tactics?
1. Taking Jim Crow laws to court
2. Putting pressure on politicians in Washington
3. Organised popular resistance to racism in the South
39
By how much did the NAACP grow in size between 1939 and 1942?
400,000
40
What was Smith v. Allwright?
Black people were excluded from primary elections in Texas. Lonnie E. Smith challenged this with the backing of the NAACP. The results were that it outlawed all-white primaries throughout America.
41
What was Morgan v. Virginia?
Challenged segregation on interstate bus services. Irene Morgan was fined for refusing to give up her seat on an interstate bus. Thurgood Marshall took her case to the Supreme Court, resulting in segregation on interstate buses being ruled illegal.
42
How did the NAACP exercise Non-violent resistance 1945-55?
1. Protests in the southern states of Louisiana - e.g when they picketed New Orleans' biggest department stores for refusing black's to try on hats.
2. Boycotts - e.g of a school in Lafayette
43
What does UDL stand for?
United Defence League
44
What does CORE stand for?
Congress of Racial Equality
45
What was CORE's Journey of Reconciliation 1947?
A team of 16 CORE activists travelled from the northern states to the southern states with the objective to draw attention to the fact that many bus companies in the South were ignoring the Morgan v. Virginia ruling.
46
What were the results of the Journey of Reconciliation?
Resulted in the arrests of 12 CORE members, but failed to force southern states such as North Carolina to desegregate its interstate bus services
47
What were the successes of direct action 1945-55?
NAACP's lynching investigation squad declined lynching by 1955.
48
What were the failures of direct action 1945-55?
Journey of Reconciliation failed to force bus companies in southern states to desegregate their interstate services.
The UDL's bus boycott was unsuccessful because it was too short, but this was constructive as later campaigns organised more effectively as a result.
49
Why did the NAACP target education?
Because it was easy to show that while children were being educated separately, they were not being educated equally - illegal in terms of Plessy v. Ferguson
50
What happened in Sweatt v. Painter 1950?
Heman Sweatt couldn't study law in Texas (south) due to segregation at the University of Texas Law School. The courts refused and instead ordered the creation of a black law school, but the NAACP rejected it and took it to the Supreme Court, saying that it was inferior to the white law school. The Supreme Court accepted this and the University was desegregated.
51
What happened in the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 1954?
Linda Brown's parents took the state of Kansas to court after failing to provide adequate education for her. They wanted her to attend a white school much closer than the black school. After 3 years of legal battles with the NAACP and the Supreme Court, 'separate but equal' was ended.
52
Why did the Supreme Court make their decision regarding Brown v. Board of Education?
- Segregation had negative effects on black children
- Growth in black middle class due to migration (more likely to challenge racial inequalities)
- Southern states lacked economic resources to improve black school (had to integrate)
- Racist education contradicted Cold War freedom fighting
- Change of court leadership to Earl Warren (more sympathetic to civil rights)
53
What was the black reaction to the Brown case?
Believed the Supreme Court would back legal challenges more, so there was an increase in local activism by civil rights organisations who organised voter registration campaigns and local protests against different aspects of segregation.
54
What were White Citizen's Councils?
Councils set up after the Brown case to raise money to help support white state schools that decided to become private to avoid integration.
55
How many people had joined White Citizen's councils by 1956?
250,000
56
What revived after Brown v. Board of Education?
The Ku Klux Klan
57
What happened after the Brown case regarding the NAACP?
Sustained attack by whites, e.g Alabama's state court officially outlawed it and banned its activities
58
What was 'massive resistance'?
White people of the south defending segregation
59
What was the Southern Manifesto?
A manifesto arguing the Supreme Court ruling in the Brown case was unconstitutional because the constitution did not mention education. It asserted that southern states should continue to implement segregation in regards to 'seperate but equal'
60
What were Eisenhower's views regarding the Brown case?
He believed that de jure change couldn't lead to de facto change, and that all it had achieved was white backlash
61
What was the Brown II ruling?
A second ruling pushed by the NAACP in regards to desegregating southern schools. It stated that is should occur 'with all deliberate speed'. The NAACP thought it was too vague to enforce any change
62
What was a positive implication of the Brown case?
It showed the Supreme Court to be sympathetic to desegregation
63
What were the failures of the brown case?
Failed to bring about complete desegregation in the southern education system
64
In 1957, how many blacks were educated in mixed schools?
3%
65
What did the Brown case show about Eisenhower?
Showed he was unwilling to use his presidential power to help black people, and that he had no intention of getting involved in civil rights
66
What were the 4 reasons for the continuation of segregation 1945-55?
1. Racist Congress
2. Eisenhower didn't want to force desegregation on the south
3. Southern state govt.s, judges and police resisted change
4. Civil rights organisations hadn't perfected their methods
67
How many of Congress signed the Southern Manifesto in 1956?
almost 1/5
68
What happened in the Montgomery bus boycott 1955-56?
On 1 December 1955 Rosa Parks refused to leave her seat for a white man and arrested as a result.
69
What 2 things did the Montgomery bus boycott lead to?
1. NAACP mounted a legal case to challenge the segregation laws
2. Black people in Montgomery began a campaign of direct action targeting local bus companies
70
What was the MIA?
The Montgomery Improvement Association established by MLK to co-ordinate a boycott local bus companies until they were desegregated after the Montgomery Bus boycott. Used non violent methods
71
What was King's philosophy?
Based on the teaching of Mohandas Gandhi. Believed Christians should love enemies and not retaliate but should stand up to injustice. Advocated civil disobedience and direct action.
72
How many of Montgomery's black population boycotted the buses?
over 85%
73
How much revenue did the bus companies lose during the Montgomery bus boycott?
65%
74
What was the progress of the bus boycott?
Arresting King attracted media attention to the campaign
75
What happened in Browder v. Gayle 1956?
Because Montgomery bus boycott didn't change segregation laws in buses, this case made it legal by Aurelia Browder refusing to give up her seat and went to the Supreme Court with the NAACP leading to bus segregation being outlawed
76
What was the significance of the Montgomery campaign?
- Showed economic power of black citizens
- Demonstrated power of uniting direct action and NAACP
- Highlighted significance of media involvement
- Brought MLK to media attention
- Led to the development of SCLC
77
What was the aim of the Little Rock Campaign 1957?
To speed up school segregation by enrolling 9 black students into Little Rock's all-white central high school.
78
What happened in the events of Little Rock 1957?
Local Governor Orval Faubus opposed the enrolment of 9 black students and ordered the National Guard to prevent them. Eisenhower ordered him to withdraw, but students still prevented due to white mob.
79
What did Faubus do during Little Rock?
He passed a law giving him the power to close local school in order to avoid desegregation, closing schools in Little Rock.
80
What was the significance of Little Rock?
- Demonstrated that de jure change could lead to de facto change
- Gained authority of US president
- Showed extent to which white southerners opposed integration
81
What happened in the Greensboro sit-ins 1960?
Blacks sitting in 'whites-only' seats refusing to leave until served. Forced the store to close temporarily.
82
How many people by 1961 had taken part in sit ins?
Over 70,000
83
What was the significance of the Greensboro sit-ins?
- Formation of SNCC
- Media meant America could see racism (increased support)
- attacked all aspects of segregation, not just education
- Showed economic power of blacks in south
84
How many towns had desegregated public places by 1961 due to the sit-ins?
810
85
What was the aim of the freedom rides?
To turn de jure victories of Morgan v. Virginia and Boynton v. Virginia into de facto change (desegregating interstate transport)
86
What happened in the Freedom Rides 1961?
Black and white CORE and SNCC members travelled from Washington DC to New Orleans set out on 4 May 1961. They expected to meet violent opposition and attract media attention but all local police offices refused to intervene.
87
What was the significance of the Freedom Rides?
- Marked new high point of co-operation in civil rights movements (it involved CORE, SNCC and SCLC)
- Showed new Kennedy administration was sympathetic towards civil rights
88
What did Robert Kennedy do during the Freedom Rides?
He enforced desegregation of interstate bus services
89
What was Local Police Chief Laurie Pritchett's approach to civil rights?
Ordered the local police to treat protestors with respect in public and to prevent racist violence. He released King when he was arrested to reduce publicity.
90
What was the Albany movement?
After Freedom rides, the SNCC targeted Albany in Georgia and organised protests to end segregation.
91
What was the significance of the Albany movement?
- Showed how peaceful protests didn't always bring about change
- Led to division within the movement: radicals (SNCC) wanted to use violence
- King acknowledged his wrong tactics, improving them for the future
92
What happened to James Meredith?
In 1962 he tried to become the first black student at the uni of Mississippi but was refused to enrol. He was backed by the Supreme Court but was still faced with a white mob. Kennedy sent federal troops to defend him and he successfully enrolled and graduated.
93
What was the conclusion of the campaigns 1955-62?
They demonstrated the power of the civil rights movement. But Federal and State authorities remained reactive, responding to demands on a case-by-case basis without committing themselves to ending segregation completely.
94
List the early southern campaigns 1955-62
```
Montgomery bus boycott
Browder v. Gayle
Little Rock Campaign
Greensboro Sit-ins
Albany Movement
```
95
Why did King choose Birmingham?
1. As shown in the freedom rides, Eugene 'Bull' Connor would react violently to protest and attract media attention.
2. Birmingham was one of the worst examples of segregation in the south.
96
Give an example of how Birmingham was one of the worst examples of segregation in the south
It banned the NAACP
97
What were the goals for the Birmingham campaign?
Focussed on the desegregation of the city's major shopping areas, schools and public parks, as well as demanding an end to racial discrimination in employment
98
What were the tactics of the Birmingham Campaign?
James Bevel (leading SCLC member) encouraged youths to take part because their arrest wouldn't affect the income of families and the authorities would be embarrassed if their jails were full of young people.
99
What happened on 3 May in the Birmingham campaign?
The police attack demonstrators with high pressure fire hoses and arrested 1300 black children. This caused a media frenzy; the Soviet media devoted 1/5 of their radio time to the protest forcing Kennedy to support the bill to end segregation
100
What was the significance of the Birmingham Campaign?
- 5 May there were negotiations between SCLC and city authorities leading to reforms regarding desegregation and racial discrimination in employment.
- media coverage created greater sympathy for civil rights movement in the north
101
What was unsuccessful about the Birmingham campaign?
Schools and most public places remained segregated and there was public opposition to desegregation. After the protest, the Klu Klux Klan bombed the 16th Street baptist Church, resulting in demonstrations across Birmingham
102
Why was King criticised after Birmingham?
Some local black leaders felt the SCLC hadn't worked with them and had ignored ongoing initiatives such as a boycott of segregated stores. The SCLC was condemned for recruiting children and putting them in danger
103
What was the March on Washington?
Organised by the SCLC, SNCC, CORE and NAACP to commemorate the centenary of the Emancipation Proclamation.
104
What was the aim of the March on Washington?
To put pressure on the President and Congress to pass a civil rights bill.
105
What were President Kennedy's views towards to march on Washington?
Worried it would become violent and jeopardise support for civil rights legislation, but King assured him it would be peaceful
106
How many marches in March on Washington were white?
20%
107
What happened at the March on Washington?
On 28th August 1963, 250,000 people marched to Lincoln Memorial to hear speeches from leading civil rights activists.
108
What was the significance of the March on Washington?
- Showed civil rights movements to have common goals and methods
- Increased white support because remained peaceful
- Attracted media attention
- Solidified support for civil rights legislation which would give the government the power to force southern states to desegregate
109
List the campaigns for voting rights
Mississippi Freedom Summer
| Selma Campaign
110
How many blacks could vote in Mississippi in 1962?
6.2%
111
What happened in the Mississippi Freedom Summer?
Activists escorted blacks to registration offices and established 'Freedom Schools' to educate blacks about civil rights issues to encourage registration
112
How many people tried to vote during the Mississippi Freedom Summer?
17,000
113
What prevented blacks from registering to vote during the Mississippi Freedom Summer?
Police intimidation
Klan violence
Unwillingness of local authorities to co-operate
114
What did the controversy over the Mississippi Freedom Summer and the MFDP show?
Signalled the breakdown in the relationship between civil rights campaigners and President Johnson, saw by many as proof that the American political system was racist
115
Why did King choose Selma for voting rights campaigning?
- only 1% of blacks could vote
| - Sheriff Jim Clark was likely to respond violently
116
What happened in the Selma Campaign?
Series of demonstrations to raise publicity.
| Climax: 50 mile march from Selma to Montgomery (successful on third attempt)
117
What was the significance of the Selma Campaign and the Mississippi Freedom Summer?
- Highlighted problems for blacks regarding voting (led to voting rights act 1965)
- Media increased support
- Revealed tensions within the movement about trusting the govt.
118
What was the Moynihan Report?
A report published in 1965 (commissioned by Johnson) investigating the extent of social and economic discrimination against black americans. Drew attention to high levels of crime within black community and the poor living conditions. Noted that ghettoisation in the North was leading to de facto segregation of education and housing.
119
What was the black response to the Moynihan Report?
Angry because it blamed them for their problems and suggested they were incapable of helping themselves. The report increased tensions between them and Johnson and was used by some whites to argue against govt. help
120
What were King's aims for the Chicago Freedom Movement?
Hoped the use of non-violent direct action used in the South could challenge de facto segregation of Chicago's education, housing and employment
121
What happened in the Chicago Freedom Movement?
A heatwave caused authorities to shut off water supply to preserve water being used by blacks to cool down which intensified violence. King's non-violent tactics were rejected with violence. The Chicago real estate board promised to respect the city's fair housing but once re-elected, the mayor ignored his promise
122
What was the significance of the Chicago Freedom Movement?
- Led to further criticism of King's tactics
- King Misjudged the situation in the North
- Revealed the scale of problems faced by black people in the North
- Forced King to rethink his strategies
123
What was the Poor People's Campaign?
In response to Chicago, King radicalised his approach. Planned to create a coalition between blacks, puerto ricans, mexicans, american indians and poor whites. But it faced problems because Johnson didn't support the plans. King's attention was diverted to the Memphis Sanitation Workers' Strike.
124
What happened in the Memphis Sanitation Workers' Strike 1968?
Strike with economic goals: to increase workers' income with non-violent tactics. It didn't remain peaceful, however.
125
Why was King criticised during the Memphis Sanitation Workers' Strike?
- Said to have led a violent march
| - Criticised for fleeing as soon as it turned violent
126
What was the significance of King's assassination?
Blacks reacted violently.
| Racial violence broke out in 130 cities
127
What were Eisenhower's years in office?
1953-61
128
What were Eisenhower's attitudes towards civil rights?
That the position of black people would improve over time on its own. This was evident in his reluctance to get involved in Little Rock. Towards to end of his presidency he proposed 2 civil rights acts
129
What did the Civil Rights Act of 1957 do?
Focussed on voting rights: establishment of a Commission on Civil Rights (a bi-partisan committee to monitor black voting rights). But penalties for crimes were weak
130
What did the Civil Rights Act of 1960 do?
Extended powers of the Commission on Civil Rights by requiring local authorities to keep records of voter registration.
131
By how much had Eisenhower's acts increased proportion of black voters by 1960?
3%
132
What were Kennedy's attitudes towards Civil Rights?
During election campaign: claimed he was sympathetic to civil rights
During presidency: slow to use his power to help blacks. Appointed black judges to federal courts (e.g Thurgood Marshall) and created the Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (CEEO). But this had little impact due to few blacks working for govt.
Showed full support during March on Washington
133
What were Kennedy's years in office?
1961-63
134
What were Johnson's years in office?
1963-69
135
What were Johnson's attitudes towards Civil Rights?
Saw the Civil Rights Act as part of a range of measures collectively known as the 'Great Society' (designed to make america a fairer place).
Passed 2 important acts: Civil Rights Act 1964 and Voting Rights Act 1965
The Vietnam War dominated Johnson's attention and King's criticism of the war split the SCLC and the govt. As a result, civil rights was less of a priority for Johnson later in his presidency
136
What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 do?
Ended legal segregation across the South
137
What did the Voting Rights Act of 1965 do?
Outlawed all tests that prevented any Americans from voting. Ended the ability of local governments to deny black citizens their right to vote.
138
What did the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and the Higher Education Act of 1965 do?
Increased funding given to education, particularly in Southern States with high proportions of black students
139
What did the Civil Rights Act of 1968 (fair housing act) do?
Outlawed discrimination in sale and rental of housing, attempting to address ghettoisation. It was limited because it gave the govt. no new powers to enforce it
140
What was Congress' effect on Civil Rights 1945-60?
Its support was essential to create nationwide laws, but because it had a significant number of southern senators it obstructed civil rights legislation during this period
141
Why did Congress' attitude towards Civil Rights change after 1960?
- Campaigns such as Birmingham exposed racial violence
- Johnson's experience could exploit Congress to ensure the bill passed
- Following 1964 congressional elections, some conservative Democrats were replaced by liberal Democrats
- Johnson convinced Congress that the Bill would be a good legacy for Kennedy
142
What was the Supreme Court's impact on Civil Rights?
Earl Warren appointed in 1953 (sympathetic to civil rights)
Important in cases such as Brown v. Board of Education and Civil rights activists were then able to use the rulings to force de facto change such as in the sit-ins in the south
143
How did Kennedy oppose civil rights?
He disagreed with the methods used such as the violence in the Freedom Rides. In 1963 he tried to keep the federal government uninvolved.
144
How did Johnson oppose civil rights?
He criticised King's Chicago campaign and didn't support the Poor People's Campaign. By the end of the 60s he saw King's campaigns as too provocative.
145
How did Congress oppose civil rights?
Alliance of southern democrats and republicans, for example using filibusters to prevent bills being passed
146
How did the FBI oppose civil rights?
Hoover, the head of the FBI was an anti-communist and thoughts the civil rights organisations had links to the communist party and were a threat to American Democracy. Set up COINTERPRO to spy on civil rights groups, using infiltration (encouraging disagreement and rivalry from within in order to weaken the groups)
147
How did local politicians oppose civil rights?
Combination of violence, propaganda and legal measures to stop civil rights (e.g Orval Faubus in Little Rock)
Mayor J Daley in North publicly agreed to negotiate with King but privately prohibited any protests, and didn't live up to his promises once elected.
148
How did local police oppose civil rights?
```
Water canon (Birmingham, Bull Connor)
Tear gas and batons (Memphis)
Being respectful to avoid media (Albany, Pritchett)
```
149
How did public opinion oppose civil rights?
Majority of Americans supported an end to legal segregation but didn't want to live in integrated neighbourhoods, shown in 'white flight' (movement of whites in integrated areas to segregated areas). This reduced tax revenue and public services suffered, effecting blacks.
150
By what percent did the white population of America's major cities decline between 1960-70?
9.6%
151
What did Sweatt v. Painter do?
Established equality in educational resources
152
What did the Brown case do?
Established that a segregated education could never be and equal education
153
What did Brown II and Cooper v. Aaron do?
Attempted to speed up integration
154
How many black students remained in segregated school in 1957?
97%
155
What did Morgan v, Virginia do?
Successfully established that the segregation of interstate transport was illegal
156
What did Browder v. Gayle do?
Established that the segregation of transport was illegal
157
How did desegregation regarding transport change after Browder v. Gayle?
de facto change across the south was slow. The civil rights act of 1964 was necessary to give fed. govt. power to enforce it
158
What was the method used to challenge segregation in public places?
Sit-ins
159
How did local authorities generally respond to sit-ins?
Took measures to avoid rather than enforce desegregation, such as closing public parks
160
How many blacks were registered to vote between 1965 and 1966?
a further 230,000
161
Where was the voting rights act most effective?
In the North
162
What was the proportion of unemployed blacks between 1950 and 1960?
twice the national average American centus of 1960 show about America's
