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Biology > Circulatory & Digestive System > Flashcards

Circulatory & Digestive System Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Metabolism

A

the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body

can be divided into catabolic reactions & anabolic reactions

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2
Q

Ingestion

A

the acquisition & consumption of food & other raw materials

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3
Q

Digestion

A

the process of converting food into a usable solution form so that it can pas through membranes in the digestive tract & enter the body

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4
Q

Absorption

A

the passage of nutrient molecules through the lining of the digestive tract into the body proper

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5
Q

Transport

A

the circulation of essential compounds required to nourish the tissues & the removal of waste products from the tissues

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6
Q

Assimilation

A

the building of new tissues from the digested food materials

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7
Q

Respiration

A

the consumption of oxygen by the body

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8
Q

Excretion

A

the removal of waste products produced during metabolic processes like respiration & assimilation

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9
Q

Regulation

A

the control of physiological activities homeostasis & irritability

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10
Q

Growth

A

an increase in size caused by cell division & synthesis of new materials

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11
Q

Reproduction

A

the generation of additional individuals of species

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12
Q

Respiration

A

-involves the conversion of the chemical energy in molecular bonds into the usable energy needed to drive the processes of living cells

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13
Q

External Respiration

A

refers to the entrance of air into the lungs & gas exchange between the alveoli & the blood

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14
Q

Internal Respiration

A

includes the exchange of gas between the blood & the cells & the intracellular processes of respiration

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15
Q

Dehydrogenation

A

the process of high-energy hydrogen atoms being removed from organic molecules

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16
Q

Glycolysis

A
  • a series of reactions that leads to the oxidative breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, the production of ATP & the reduction of NAD+ into NADH
  • occurs in the cytoplasm
  • defined as the sequence of reaction that converts glucose into pyruvate with the concomitant production of ATP
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17
Q

Glycolytic Pathway

A

Glucose (hexokinase) -> Glucose-6-phosphate (phosphoglucose isomerase) -> Fructose-6-phosphate (phosphofructokinase) -> Fructose 1,6 biphosphate (fructose biphosphate aldolase) -> 1,3 diphosphoglycerate -> 3 phosphoglycerate -> 2 phosphoglycerate -> phosphoenolpyruvate -> pyruvate

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18
Q

phosphorylation

A

from one molecule of glucose 2 molecules of pyruvate are obtained
2 ATP are used and 4 are generated
net of 2 ATP

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19
Q

Anaerobic metabolism

A

only produces 2 ATP per glucose

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20
Q

Glycolysis

A

Glucose + 2ADP + 2pi + 2NAD+ -> 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2H2O

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21
Q

Anaerobic Conditions

A

pyruvate can be reduced under fermentation

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22
Q

Aerobic Conditions

A

pyruvate is oxidized during cellular respiration in the mitochondria

23
Q

Fermentation

A

NAD+ must be regenerated for glycolysis to continue in the absence of O2 (reduce pyruvate into ethanol or lactic acid

24
Q

Alcohol fermentation

A

occurs in yeast and some bacteria

25
Q

Lactic Acid fermentation

A

occurs in certain fungi and bacteria and in human muscle cells during strenuous activity - in the form of lactic acid

26
Q

Cellular Respiration

A
  • the most efficient catabolic pathway used by organisms to harvest the energy stored in glucose
  • can yield 36-38 ATP
  • it is an aerobic process
  • oxygen acts as the final accept of electrons that are passed from carriers during the final stage of glucose
27
Q

Pyruvate Decarboxylation

A

pyruvate is transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondrial matrix where it is decarboxylated adn the acetyl group is transferred to coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA

28
Q

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

A
  • cycle begins when the two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate, a four-carbon molecule, to form the six-carbon citrate
  • for each turn of the citric acid cycle, one ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation via a GTP intermediate
  • NAD+ -> NADH FAD -> FADH2
  • these coenzymes then transport the electrons to the electron-transport chain, where more ATP is produced via oxidative phosphorylation

2x3 NADH -> 6NADH
2x1 FADH2 -> 2 FADH2
2x1 GTP (ATP) -> 2ATP

net reaction: 2acetyl CoA + 6NAD+ + 2FAD + 2GDP + 2Pi + 4H2O -> 4CO2 + 6NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2GTP +4H+ + 2CoA

29
Q

Electron Transport Chain

A

-a complex carrier mechanism located on the inside of the inner mitochondrial membrane
-most molecules of ETC are cytochromes (electron carriers that resemble hemoglobin to the structure of their active site)
2H+ + 2e- + 1/2O2 -> H2O

30
Q

Total Energy Phosphorylation

A

-to calculate the net amount of ATP produced per molecule of glucose, we need to tally the number of ATP produced by substrate-level phosphorylation and the number of ATP produced by oxidative phosphorylation

31
Q

Substrate-level Phosphorylation

A

-degradation of one glucose molecule yields a net of two ATP from glycolysis and one ATP for each turn of the citric acid cycle (4 total ATP)

32
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A
  • the process that produces more than 90% of the ATP used by the cells in our body
  • major steps involved occur within the ETC or respiratory chain of the mitochondira
33
Q

Eukaryotic ATP Production

A

Glycolysis

2 ATP invested (steps 1 and 3) -2ATP
4 ATP generated (steps 6 and 9) +4 ATP (substrate)
2 NADH x 2ATP/NADH (step 5) +4 ATP (oxidative)

Pyruvate Decarboxylation

2 NADH x 3 ATP/NADH +6 ATP (oxidative)

Citric Acid Cycle

6 NADH x 3 ATP/NADH +18 ATP (oxidative)
2 FADH2 x 2 ATP/FADH2 + 4 ATP (oxidative)
2 GTP x 1 ATP/GTP +2 ATP (substrate)

total: 36 ATP

34
Q

Carbohydrates

A

disachharides are hydrolyzed into monosaccharides, most of which are converted into glucose or glycolytic intermediates

35
Q

Fats

A
  • stored in adipose tissue in the form of triglycerides
  • when needed, hydrolyzed by lipases to fatty acids & glycerol & are carried by the blood to other tissues for oxidation
  • a fatty acid must first be activated in the cytoplasm then transported into the mitochondrion and taken through a series of beta-oxidation cycles that convert it into two-carbon fragments, which are then converted into acetyl CoA
  • acetyl CoA then enters the citric acid cycle fats yield the greatest number of ATP per gram
36
Q

Proteins

A
  • the body degrades proteins only when not enough carbohydrates or fat is available
  • most amino acids undergo a transamination reaction in which they lose an amino group to form an alpha keto acid
  • oxidative deamination removes an ammonia molecule directly from the amino acid
37
Q

Enzymes

A
  • regulate metabolism by speeding up certain chemical reactions
  • they decrease the activation energy
  • they are proteins
  • many enzymes are conjugate proteins so they operate with coenzymes meaning both must be present in order to function
  • enzymes do no alter the equilibrium constant
  • enzymes are not consumed in the reaction
  • enzymes are pH & temperature sensitive
  • catalyzed reactions are reversible
38
Q

Organic catalyts

A

any substance that affects the rate of a chemical reaction w/o itself being changed

39
Q

Substrate

A

the molecule upon which an enzyme acts

40
Q

Active site

A

the area on each enzyme, which a substrate ends

41
Q

Lock & Key Theory

A

the spatial structure of an enzyme’s active site is exactly complementary to the spatial structure of substrate

42
Q

Induced Fit Theory

A
  • the active site has flexibility of shape
  • when the appropriate substrate comes in contact w/ the active site, the confirmation of the active site changes to fit the substrate
43
Q

Enzyme Specificity

A
  • depend on several environmental factors including temp, pH, & concentration
  • as temp rises, the rate of enzyme increases until an optimum temp is reached
  • beyond optimal temp, heat alters the shape of the active site of the enzyme & deactivates it leading to a rapid drop in rate of action
  • pancreatic enzymes work optimally in alkaline conditions of the small intestines
44
Q

Pepsin

A

works best in highly acidic conditions

45
Q

Competitive Inhibition

A
  • active site of an enzyme is specific for a particular substrate or class of substrates
  • if a similar molecule is present to the substrate, it will compete for the site and interfere w/ enzyme activity
46
Q

Noncompetitive Inhibition

A
  • a substance that forms strong covalent bonds w/ an enzyme, making it unable to bind w/ its substrate
  • it is irreversible
  • reaction will never reach Vmaz
  • when the inhibition takes place at a site other than the active site, it is called allosteric inhibition
47
Q

Allosteric Inhibition

A

changes the structure of the enzyme so that the active site is also changed

48
Q

Hydrolysis

A

reactions function to digest large molecules into smaller components

49
Q

Lactase

A

hydrolyzes lactose to the monosachharides glucose & galactose

50
Q

Protease

A

degrade proteins to amino acids

51
Q

Lipases

A

break down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol

52
Q

Synthesis

A

can be catalyzed by the same enzymes as hydrolysis reactions, but can be reversed

53
Q

Cofactors

A

may be required by an enzyme to be activated (Zn2+ or Fe2+)

Biology (17 decks)

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