CHYS 2000H Midterm

Question 1

What is a literature review? Why is it important?

Answer 1

Literature – The collection of academic and peer-reviewed writing on any given subject.
Literature Review – An articulate summary of the most important aspects of that literature for your field and the most pertinent or relevant to your research project.

Question 2

The purpose of a literature review

Answer 2

A systematic examination of previously published studies on a research issue; a method that a researcher undertakes to prepare for conducting a study that can bring together and summarize the ‘state of the field’.
(1) Narrow down a broad topic by showing how others have conducted their studies.
(2) It informs you about the ‘state of knowledge’ on a topic.
(3) It can stimulate your creativity and curiosity.

Question 3

The goals of a literature review

Answer 3

(1) To demonstrate familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish credibility.
(2) To show the path of prior research and how a current project is linked to it.
(3) To integrate and summarize what is known in an area.
(4) To learn from others and stimulate new ideas.

Question 4

Assessing a Literature Review Article

Answer 4

A Review of Children’s Rights Literature Since the Adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
Didier Reynaert, Maria Bouverne-De Bie, Stijn Vandevelde
Read over the abstract of this article. Scan the rest of the article.
What is the purpose of this literature review?
How does it differ from a regular journal article?
What other reflections do you have from the article?

Question 5

What are the different sources relevant to a literature review?

Answer 5

Periodicals
A category of literature with serial publications that appear in a new edition on a regular schedule.

Scholarly Journals
The primary type of periodical to use for a literature review that is peer-reviewed (assessed by other academics).

Question 6

Periodicals

Answer 6

Mass market publications including magazines, professional publications, and opinion publications may be used for researchers for a more current understanding of an issue, but these sources have not undergone the proper peer-review process that scholarly articles require.

Question 7

Scholarly Journals

Answer 7

Peer-reviewed articles published generally monthly, quarterly, bi-annually and annually.
Scholarly journals contain citations to help locate the source vis-à-vis a bibliography.
Scholarly journals contain abstracts; a short summary of a scholarly article that appears at the beginning.

Question 8

How to conduct a systematic literature review

Answer 8

A literature review requires a clearly defined, well-focused research question and plan to bring greater focus to the topic.

(2) A literature review requires a search strategy including questions such as:
The type of review, the extensiveness of the review, the material to include.

(3) Next, proceed to locate research (particularly a scholarly journal article) by using multiple search strategies and databases.

(4) Begin to read and take notes from the literature:

(5) Proceed to organize your notes:

(6) Start writing the review.

Question 9

Social Theory

Answer 9

What you see

A system of interconnected ideas that condenses and organizes knowledge about the social world. It transpires through combining a narrative about the world with systematic observation of the world.
Reflect on this definition of social theory as we examine 3 characteristics of social theory (we will revisit the definition afterwards).

Question 10

Three Characteristics of Social Theory

Answer 10

(1) Social theories explain patterns rather than why specific events occur.
Social theories may not be able to explain a specific event (a child acting out), but it can explain the conditions that sustain the activity.
-ex why a child is acting out you have theories - no specific cause
patters

(2) Social theories explain in aggregates (a collection of individuals data that is based off of more than one case ) rather than the particular action of an individual.
Social theories may not be able to explain why one child chooses a specific activity over another, but it can explain why a group of people (females, males, transgender) may generally choose one activity over another).

(3) Social theories explain based on a tendency or probability rather than affirming absolute causation.
Social theories cannot confirm that a child’s predominant form of play will shape their social relations as an adult, but it may support the contention that someone who is shy as a child may be more likely to be shy as an adult.
suggest- their is a probability

Question 11

Social Theory (Revisited)

Answer 11

A system of interconnected ideas that condenses and organizes knowledge about the social world. It transpires through combining a narrative about the world with systematic observation of the world.
These examples explain that patterns, aggregates and probability define social theory. Reflect for a moment on a topic of your choice and formulate a social theory to share with the class.
they can be disproven
a show will get renewed = it got good ratings

Question 12

Concepts

Answer 12

An idea expressed as a symbol or word. All theories contain concepts, and concepts are the building blocks of theory.
For example, gender or social class are concepts.

Question 13

How do assumptions and concepts relate to theories?

Answer 13

ns – A part of a social theory that is not tested but acts as a starting point/basic belief about the world.
Concepts and theories build on assumptions about the nature of social reality.
A deeper understanding of a concept emerges by identifying the assumption on which it is based.
base of concepts and assumptions= theory

Question 14

How do assumptions and concepts relate to theories?

Answer 14

Concept – Gender
Assumption – Gender equality
Theory – All human beings should be entitled to pursue any occupation regardless of gender.

Question 15

(1) Ontology

Answer 15

(What do we know?)
exames the nature of reality = aussmption
A branch of philosophy that considers the way we understand the nature of reality.

Question 16

1.concept (ontology)
2. assumption (objectivity or subjectivity)
3. theory (epistemology) Positivist and Interpretive
methodology = qualitative or quantitative

Question 17

Objectivity

Answer 17

there is an objective social reality that exists the same for everyone

Question 18

subjectivity

Answer 18

there is a subjective social reality that is unique for everyone

Question 19

Epistemology

Answer 19

(How do we know it?) theory
A branch of philosophy that studies the construction of knowledge (the relationship between the researcher and what they are researching.

Question 20

Positivist paradigm

Answer 20

(the result should always be the same cause they can separate themself from the research )

The belief that value-free research is possible because the researcher can separate themselves from the research.

Question 21

Interpretive Paradigm

Answer 21

The belief that value-free research is not possible because the researcher cannot separate themselves from the research – their findings will always be their interpretation.

Question 22

The Positivist and Interpretive Paradigms

Answer 22

Positivism and Interpretivism are paradigms within social research.
Paradigm – A general organizing framework for social theory and empirical research. It includes assumptions, beliefs, models of doing good research and methods for finding answers to research questions.

Question 23

Positivism- is about one answer = doing surveys

Answer 23

Ontology – Objective – There is an objective social reality that exists the same for everyone.

Epistemology – Positivism – The belief that value-free research is possible because the researcher can separate themselves from the research.

Replication – Researchers must repeat scientific findings in multiple studies to have a high level of confiden2ce that they are true= the more the research is done than the closer they are to one answer

Nomothetic – A generalized system of laws can be established and hold true.

Methodology – Positivist studies generally use quantitative methods including statistics, surveys and experiments.

Question 24

Interpretivism

Answer 24

Ontology – subjectivity– There is a subjective social reality that is unique for everyone.
Epistemology – Interpretivism – The belief that value-free research is not possible because the researcher cannot themselves from the research – their findings will always be their interpretation.

Verstehen - Researchers do not view replication as the goal because it is paradigmatically impossible. Rather, researchers seek verstehen – empathetic understanding for another person’s worldview.

Idiographic – A generalized system of laws does not hold true and therefore this approach focuses on creating detailed descriptions of a specific context. -qualitative

Methodology – Interpretive studies generally use qualitative methods including interviews and focus groups to capture the variance in social reality.

Question 25

Deduction quantitative and Induction

Answer 25

Deduction and Induction in social research theory align with objectivity/subjectivity and positivism/interpretivism.

Question 26

Deduction - objective

Answer 26

• abstract thinking that develops theory
  -connects ideas in theory to concrete evidence
  -test ideas’ against the evidence to produce results

Question 27

Induction - subjective

Answer 27

• specific observations of empirical evidence
  -use evidence to generalize & build towards abstract ideas
• concludes from abstract thinking to develop theory

Question 28

Deduction (Positivism – Nomothetic Approach) and Induction (Interpretivism – Idiographic Approach)

Answer 28

Deduction identifies a theory to test against evidence aligning specifically with the positivist requirement to establish general laws (nomothetic approach).

Induction starts with observation to produce a theory from observation aligning specifically with the interpretivist requirement to account for in-depth individual beliefs (idiographic approach).

Question 29

Variables

Answer 29

A concept or its empirical measure that can take on multiple values.

A variable contains within it, it’s meaning, to vary.

Marital Status – married, separated, divorced
i.e. Type of Crime Committed – robbery, burglary, theft

i.e. Marital Status – Married is an attribute of the variable (marital status).
i.e. Type of Crime Committed – Robbery is an attribute of the variable (type of crime committed).

Question 30

Types of Variables

Answer 30

Independent variables – The first variable that causes or produces the effect in a causal explanation. Often denoted by an x.
Dependent variables – The effect variable that is last and results from the causal variable(s) in a causal explanation. Often denoted by a y.
The independent variable is ‘independent of’ prior causes that act on it, whereas the dependent variable ‘depends on ‘ the cause.
Topic – Reasons for an increase in child poverty in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Independent Variable – Reasons for …
Dependent variable – Child poverty

Question 31

Intervening Variables (or mediators)

Answer 31

– A variable that is between the initial causal variable and the final effect variable in a causal explanation.

Basic Causal Relationship – Family Disruption (independent) impacts Adult Income (dependent).
Causal Relationship with Intervening Variables – family disruption (independent), childhood self-esteem (Intervening), depression (intervening), grades in school (intervening), adult income (dependent).

Question 32

Causal Theory and Hypothesis (think about Quantitative )

Answer 32

Hypothesis – The statement from a causal explanation or a proposition that has at least one independent and one dependent variable, but it has yet to be empirically tested.
A causal hypothesis has 5 characteristics:
At least two variables.
Expresses a causal (cause and effect) relationship between the variables.
Expressed as a prediction.
Linked to a research question.
Falsifiable – it is capable of being tested against empirical evidence.

Question 33

The Language of Cases and Contexts

Answer 33

Cases, contexts and social processes are examined for interpreting their meaning.
The tendency is to develop grounded theory – social theory that is rooted in observations of specific and concrete details.
Observing, document and reporting findings advances the understanding of meaning in social processes.

Question 34

The Context is Critical

Answer 34

There is an emphasis on the social context because the meaning of social action is context-dependent.
If one is studying the nature of childhood, they may ask “What does childhood consist of in Canada?” therefore narrowing to a specific context.

Question 35

The Case and Process

Answer 35

There is a tendency to focus on a wide variety of aspects related to one or a few cases.
Explanations or interpretations are complex and may come in multiple forms that are rich in detail and provide astute insight.
Consider the wide variety of explanations/interpretations to the question – How has bullying in children and youth relationships changed over time?

Question 36

Interpretation

Answer 36

Assigning significance or a coherent meaning is vital. By rearranging, examining, and discussing data that conveys the authentic voice of participants, data is rich in depth and translatable to the reader.

Question 37

Units and Levels of Analysis

Answer 37

Units of Analysis – The kind of empirical case or unit that a researcher observes, measures, and analyzes in a study. Units include the individual, group (family), organization (university), society (Canada).
A research project looking at how much money universities spend on their athletic program would use the organization as the unit of analysis.

Question 38

Levels of Analysis – A way to talk about the scope of social research.

Answer 38

Micro-Level – how do interpersonal relationships between children in a kindergarten classroom impact their self-esteem?
Macro-Level – How inequality affects the job opportunities of youth based on large-scale distribution of wealth, property, and income across a whole society?

Question 39

Five Types of Error in Explanation
(1) Ecological Fallacy

Answer 39

Something that appears to be a causal explanation but is not. It occurs because of confusion about units of analysis. A researcher has empirical evidence about an association for large-scale units or huge aggregates, but overgeneralizes to make theoretical statements about an association among small-scale units or individuals.

Question 40

Five Types of Error in Explanation
(2) Reductionism

Answer 40

(2) Reductionism (or the fallacy of non-equivalence) – Something that appears to be a causal explanation but is not, because of confusion about units of analysis. A researcher has empirical evidence for an association at the level of the individual behaviour or very small-scale units, but overgeneralizes to make theoretical statements about very large-scale units.- minimization almost

Question 41

Five Types of Error in Explanation
(3) Spuriousness – something hidden

Answer 41

A statement that appears to be a causal explanation but is not, because of a hidden, unmeasured, or initially unseen variable. The unseen variable comes earlier in the temporal order, and it has a causal impact on what was initially posited to be the independent variable as well as the dependent variable.

Question 42

Five Types of Error in Explanation
(4) Tautology

Answer 42

An error in explanation that rests on circular reasoning.
“People are poor because they have little money.” At first glance, it appears to be cause and effect but being poor and having little money are the same thing.

Question 43

Five Types of Error in Explanation
(5) Teleology

Answer 43

An error in explanation that relies on the fulfillment of an ultimate purpose. -you say something to give a purpose, the development of something to fullfuil a certain purpose
“Religion exists because it fulfills a purpose in society.” - why did it happen in the first
But what led to religion arising in the first place before fulfilling a purpose in society?

Question 44

Quantitative

Answer 44

Follows a linear trajectory of steps.
Tests hypothesis that the researcher poses.
Concepts are in the form of distinct variables.
Measures are systematically created before data collection and are standardized.
Data are in the form of numbers.
Theory is largely causal and deductive.
Procedures are standard and replication is assumed.

Question 45

Qualitative

Answer 45

Follows a nonlinear trajectory of steps.
Captures and discovers meaning once the researcher is immersed in the data.
Concepts are in the form of themes or taxonomies.
Measures are created in an ad hoc manner and are often specific to the particular setting.
Data are in the form of words or images.
Theory can be causal or non-causal and is largely inductive.
Procedures are particular and replication is rare.