CHYS -1000 pt1

Question 1

What is a child

Answer 1

It depends on historical, cultural and social context, Also depends on the theoretical perspectives

Question 2

What does discourse mean?

Answer 2

A set of ideas which represent a particular view of the world, or an understanding of how the world works. Implies a representation of the social construct in question. Often shaped by culture, history and dynamics around power

Question 3

What did Phillipe Aries offer?

Answer 3

o offered that the idea of childhood did not exist in medieval society
o Gave rise to the idea that childhood is a construction, that is, that the ideas about what childhood is, or what it should be, change over time and for specific reasons.

Question 4

• What is childhood?

Answer 4

o Childhood is a distinct time period (different from adults), a separate safe space

Question 5

• What are the three common western historical discourses?

Answer 5

Puritan View of Childhood,Children as Blank Slates,Inherently Innocent: The Romantic View of Childhood

Question 6

o What is the Puritan View of Childhood?

Answer 6

 strict English and American Protestants of the 16th and 17th centuries) , rather a shorthand for viewing children as inherently evil
 Need discipline children- potential offenders, inherently evil-Child have the potential for evil if not corrected
 Child rearing based on the view that child are inherently wicked or evil
 Idea largely shared by Christians throughout Europe and Americans
 A “godly’ household was an essential requirement for order
 Not to be interpreted children were unloved – discipline =love

Question 7

o What is the Children as Blank Slates? (The Enlightenment)

Answer 7

 John Locke (1632-1704)
 Rejected the idea of innate goodness or original sin
 At birth Mind is a blank slate or tabula rasa
 Character (good or bad) emerged from experience - Advocated for a system of rewards and punishments

Question 8

o What is the Inherently Innocent: The Romantic View of Childhood?

Answer 8

 According to Jean-Jacques Rosseau (18th Century Romantic philosopher):
 Important to consider a child as a child
 Children innocent at birth, rather than tainted with original sin
 World corrupts children and children should be protected - Inherently Innocent: The Romantic View of Childhood
 Childhood is a time of innocence. Artists in this period began to depict childhood as innocent.

Question 9

o Childhood in Victorian England and In Colonial Canada

Answer 9

 Industrial Revolution: 1760-1850, a period in which Europe and US moved to a more industrial way of life ( e.g., from boats to trains)
 Industrialization and urbanization brought several issues to the forefront in relation to childhood
 Poor working-class families moved to the city for work
 Children seen as angelic in some sectors – (e.g., middle class)
 Children from poor families were working in cotton mills and being sent up to sweep chimneys – some died

Question 10

• What were the two social reformers for children and childhood?

Answer 10

o 1) child labour, and 2) compulsory schooling

Question 11

• Elementsts of family life in classical times ?

Answer 11

o Was patriarchal (i.e., the father was the head of the household)
o head of household had power over life and death of all family members, ,For example, a father might decide at birth whether to allow the infant to live or whether to abandon it)
o . If a child was born weak or abnormal, it might be drowned, Abortion, infanticide, and abandonment were early forms of family planning.

Question 12

• How in Classical Times did sex and social class take place?

Answer 12

o Children experienced childhood differently depending on social class and on gender – as they do today
o Girl infants were more likely to be victims of infanticide or abandonment than boys
o Girls were viewed as a potential future drain on family wealth whereas boys could contribute as they grew older,
o Girls were less likely to be well-nourished or educated than did boys.
o Girls seen as a strain on the family

Question 13

• Elements of Sex and Social Class Differences?-

Answer 13

o Should not be interpreted to mean that children were not important – children who survived were loved and protected
o Gender roles - ‘men were born to rule and women to obey’
o Viewed the child as something to be moulded into an adult, who progressed through the stages of infancy, boyhood, and adolescence.
o Children were viewed as inherently impressionable
o Children’s play was seen as something natural to childhood as a means of learning and (for boys) of encouraging competition

Question 14

• Elements of Children and Childhood in Historical Religious Thought?

Answer 14

o practices of infanticide and abandonment of children were common in Classical times, however with the advent of religious thought, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity all opposed these practices
o In these early concepts of childhood we find the foundations for the modern child – child as a valued human individual

Question 15

• How were poor children’s childhoods shaped/ started?

Answer 15

o Working at a young age

Question 16

• What did Thomas Hobbes believe about children?

Answer 16

o In Hobbes’s view, the child was subject to the parent
o Child to a parent as a slave to a master.
o Children lacked reason: not necessarily as born with original sin but no more valuable than beasts.

Question 16

• What did Thomas Hobbes believe about children?

Answer 16

o In Hobbes’s view, the child was subject to the parent
o Child to a parent as a slave to a master.
o Children lacked reason: not necessarily as born with original sin but no more valuable than beasts.

Question 17

• What was the Modern Institutionalization Of Children: The Schoolchild ?

Answer 17

o Concerns about child labour during the Industrial Revolution were related to the moral development of child workers.
o Concerns for the health (mental, physical and emotional)- Campaign to remove children from factories began

Question 18

• What were the elements of Early Reform and Canada?

Answer 18

o Social reformers of this era were concerned with: 1) child labour, and 2) compulsory schooling
o Provincial legislation regulating child labour in factories and mines began to pass in the 1870s and 1880s
o By 1929 illegal to hire children under 14 to work in factories or mines in most provinces
o Early 1870s to mid-1920s all provinces enacted legislation requiring school attendance
o In 1921 , increased the age of compulsory school to 16

Question 19

• What is Compulsory Schooling?

Answer 19

o Adopts both the romantic and blank slate discourses of childhood
o Childhood a time of dependence – children completely reliant on parents and the state
o “At no other time in history has the experience of being a child undergone such transformation” p. 23
o the parents became dependent on the children

Question 20

• What is the dominant paradigm ?

Answer 20

o (i.e. grounded in psychological developmental theory and traditional socialization theory) (Wyness, 2011)

Question 21

• What is the ‘New’ paradigm?

Answer 21

o social study of childhood

Question 22

• What is Cognitive Growth?

Answer 22

o The terms ‘assimilation’(knowledge by practicing something) and ‘accommodation’ are important Piagetian terms (1967).
o A child is assimilating knowledge by practicing or repeating something learnt.
o When that knowledge has changed the existing schemata, then that knowledge has been accommodated.
o Adaptation: two processes assimilation and accommodation

Question 23

• What is Assimilation?

Answer 23

o Existing schemes used to interpret novel information
o New info absorbed into existing scheme
o Using the environment so the is can be places into preexisting cognitive structures

Question 24

• What is Accommodation?

Answer 24

o Accommodation: changes cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment
o creation of new scheme or alteration of existing scheme to copes with information

Question 25

• What is Equilibration?

Answer 25

o Biological drive to obtain balance between schemes and the environment

Question 26

• What was the new way of looking at childhood and at children in society?

Answer 26

o James and Prout (1997) mapped out what an emerging paradigm of the social study of childhood might look like
o Children were worthy of study in their own right
o Paradigm shift – a new way of thinking about children

Question 27

• Why did the new Paradigm shift happen?

Answer 27

o Rejects a view of children as passive incompetent becomings
o Highlights the socially constructed nature of childhood
o Moves away from a conception of childhood as an age-bound develop-mental process
o Moves away from a view of children as passive recipients of socialization
o Moves toward seeing childhood as a time of competence and agency

Question 28

• Why was the new paradigm influential ?

Answer 28

o Highlights the historical construction of childhood
o Focus on children’s present rather than children’s future roles
o Documenting the cultural and social and historical construction of childhood
o Social construction theory allows us to see that there are multiple constructions and representations of childhood that vary between and within cultures

Question 29

• What are three childhood as a structure assumptions?

Answer 29

o Childhood is a particular structural form
o Childhood is exposed to the same societal forces as adulthood
o Children themselves are co-constructors of childhood and of society (Qvortrup, 1994)

Question 30

• How is childhood constructed on four levels?

Answer 30

o 1) in transactions and interactions between children and adults;
o 2) in group transactions, for example between teachers and pupils;
o 3) in the individual relations between people born at different points in history; and
o 4) in social policies (Mayall 2002: 35)

Question 31

• What is the Darwin approach to child study?

Answer 31

o Darwin: first to apply methods of the natural world to understand childhood
o Darwin kept extensive notes (diaries) of his children
o Humans subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals.
o Darwinian approach led to mass measurement and observations of children
o Production of charts outlining “normal” percentiles

Question 32

• What were Theories of Child 1800s & 1900s?

Answer 32

o Concern about the future stock of the nation- How children would grow up to be adults
o Focus on mental, physical health, and racial difference
o Francis Galton (cousin of Darwin) influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary theory (survival of the fittest) applied concepts to the social world
o Social Darwinism (or eugenics – good breeding). Galton coined the term - eugenics
o Undesirable societal characteristics: e.g., low intelligence (break the cycle)
o New science of mental testing – (IQ tests)
o Programme disproportionately used against minority groups

Question 33

• What is Developmental psychology from Piaget?

Answer 33

o Jean Piaget: influential developmental psychologist
o He was interested in how children’s thinking developed with age
o Not until children neared adulthood that they thought like adults
o Jean Piaget’s theory remains the standard against which all other theories are judged
o Constructivist theory – children construct an understanding of their world based on observations of the effects of their behaviour- Constructivist theory

Question 34

• What is Sensorimotor Stage ?

Answer 34

o Birth to age 2
o Build newborn reflexes (sucking, rooting, etc.) into symbolic activity
o Children experience their world: senses and motor movements
o Physical development (mobility) allows the child to develop new skills and new intellectual - Symbolic ability (e.g., language) developed by the end

Question 35

• What is Preoperational Stage? (2-6 years)

Answer 35

o Intelligence is illustrated through use of the use of symbols, language use matures, memory and imagination develops
o A mix of impressive cognitive acquisitions and equally impressive limitations (e.g., language acquisition)
o One major limitation is egocentrism, the tendency to perceive the world solely from one’s own point of view.
o A related limitation is centration, the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event.

Question 36

• What is Concrete Operations? 6-12 years

Answer 36

o Children begin to reason logically about the world.
o Conservation is mastered (e.g., number, length, mass, liquid)
o Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects

Question 37

• What is Formal Operations Stage? (12 years & Older)

Answer 37

o Cognitive development culminates in the ability to think abstractly and to reason hypothetically.
o Logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts.
o Individuals can imagine alternative worlds and reason systematically about all possible outcomes of a situation.
o “If all blue people live in red houses, are all people who live in red houses blue?”

Question 38

• What is Developmental Psychology ?

Answer 38

o Developmentalism describes the child’s progress to adulthood as a series of age-related steps
o Developmental process unfolds naturally and that all children go through the stages in the same order and at the same age,
o Childhood development is universal
o Children that do not develop according to the template are labelled deficient.
o Developmentalism positions children as different from, and lesser than, adult
o Children become adult by virtue of age-based progression through developmental stages.
o It is important to see how education became tied to developmentalism, and thus became the dominant way of thinking about childhood

Question 39

• What is the Child as an Object of Study ?

Answer 39

o Research methods used in psychology tended to be quantitative and/or experimental
o Research methods focused on reporting adults’ interpretations of gathered data opposed to reporting the child’s perspective
o Important to be objective –distance between the researcher and the researched
o Children seen as adults in the making
o According to your textbook psychology can tell us a great deal about how the mind works, but cannot tell us everything about childhood
o subordinate position in societies and in theoretical conceptualisations of childhood and socialization’ (Corsaro, 2005).
o Children appeared only as recipients of socialization by adults
o Developmental psychology viewed child as “in the process of becoming”
o Traditional socialization examined “how the child becomes a functioning member of society”
o The sociological child: blank slate or ‘empty vessel’ which is then ‘filled’ by society. - Concerns of social order

Question 40

• What is the Criticisms of Socialization Theory ?

Answer 40

o Socialization process maintains existing inequalities and thereby becomes a mechanism of social control. Those with more cultural resources will do better than others
o Socializing process appears to demand no more of children than to internalize or model what they see around them.
o Children are seen as passive objects

Question 41

• What were elements of Terminally Ill Children and Death ?

Answer 41

o Myra Bluebond-Langner (1978), an ethnographic study with terminally ill children
o Her work demonstrated the part that children themselves play in their socialization
o Even though adults around the children did not discuss the children’s illnesses nor their impending deaths, the children came to know what was happening
o children were able to pick on parents, loved ones and doctors ody langue and the they were spoken to- they were able to pick up on the lies that the paretns were telling the them- also the child can feel they way their body is changing in a bad way – they are dying

Question 42

• What is Klocker’s (2007) thin and thick agency?

Answer 42

o Children still able to exercise agency – even if situations where children have very little agency
o Thinned by structures such as gender and ethnicity. Still possible for children to demonstrate that they are agentic beings – even though at times their agency might be expressed only thinly, or even negatively, in the form of acts of resistance to adult control.

Question 43

• What are Two Major Research Approaches in studies ?

Answer 43

o Primary Research Paradigm (i.e., scientific method, quantitative): the child was an object of study
o Child-friendly approach, Qualitative (e.g., observation, drawing, photography)

Question 44

• What is the Scientific approach?

Answer 44

o the most appropriate for establishing causal relationships.

Question 45

• What are approaches to testing that involves?

Answer 45

o Selecting a question
o Formulating a hypothesis (i.e., an educated guess based on prior knowledge)
o Test the hypothesis
o Draw a conclusion

Question 46

• What are qualitative methods?

Answer 46

o focus was on producing accounts of experience, rather than a set of numerical data showing causal relationships between variables
o Participants communicate to the researcher their lived experiences and understandings
o Both quantitative and qualitative methods have their uses. Depends on the philosophical and methodological background of the researcher

Question 47

• What are Child-friendly Methods?

Answer 47

o Observation
 Ethnography: participant observation
 Observer takes part in the daily lives of those being studied, sometimes for an extended period of time.
 For example, Bluebond-Langner’s (1978) study of children with a terminal illness used participant observation (uncovering aspects of children’s competence previously unsuspected)
o Photography
 Children given cameras to take photographs of things that are important to them (e.g., objects, physical spaces, or people)
 Images produced are used as prompts for further discussion.
 Photos produced more detail than the use of verbal interviews alone
 Not always clear that the children taking part knew why they were using cameras
 Researchers to carefully explain their intentions
o Drawing
 Popular because drawing is something children are familiar with in school
 Some children may not enjoy this process
 Technique allows the child to express complex ideas or to give children time to think over their response
 Research can investigate difficult issues without asking about them directly.
o Vignettes
 Provide hypothetical scenarios
 Explain what they or a hypothetical “someone” might do
 Used when the research topic is a sensitive or difficult one (interviewee can remove themselves from the situation)
o Participatory Action Research (PAR)
 This approach draws on and/or combines multiple child-friendly methods
 Research with the intent to bring about social change
 Researcher facilitates participants’ investigation into a subject which the participants themselves have identified as important
o Questionnaires- (*debatable)
 Questionnaires have not been extensively used in research with children and this reflects a view that children are not competent as research subjects (not able to express themselves)
 Respondent needs to have a certain level of literacy. The language used needs to be tailored to the competence of the respondent, whether child or adult.

Question 48

• What is an assumption?

Answer 48

o child-friendly strategies in research are superior to standard techniques because children are less competent than adults
o What are some ethical issues ?
o The legal and professional guidelines for ethical conduct with children rests on several assumptions:
o children are incompetent to give consent;
o children are in the process of developing and thus not rational; and
o children are in need of protection.
o Children Should Be Informed
o Give positive consent, rather than merely not expressing dissent.

Question 49

• What is Traditional Research with Children ?

Answer 49

o Until recently, focus on children and childhood was lacking in traditional sociology
o Primary Research Paradigm (i.e., scientific method) : the child was an object of study
o Methods employed tended to be quantitative and/or experimental
o Adults’ interpretations of data gathered was reported rather than children’s interpretations and meanings.

Question 50

• What is an Experimental Design?

Answer 50

o Random assignment of participants to conditions
o Experimental Group - receives the manipulation
o Control Group - does not receive the manipulation
o Independent Variable: Experimenter manipulates and has more than one level
o Dependent Variable - Experimenter measures to see whether manipulation had an effect

Question 51

• Willingness to Hurt Results?

Answer 51

o Children who had observed the aggressive program later showed more willingness to engage in interpersonal aggression than the control group (those that viewed the neutral program)
o In sum, children’s willingness to engage in interpersonal aggression was affected by the viewing of violent televised material

Question 52

• Elements of child involved study?

Answer 52

o Methods: drawing, photography, telling stories, keeping diaries, and observation.
o These methods aim to be inclusive and to build rapport, trust and confidence with participants’ (Barker and Weller, 2003: 36).
o Publications incorporated quotations from children as a representation of their authentic voice
o Placing children’s voices at the centre of the research process and renegotiating ways of working with children in research began during the 1990s
o One outcome was the development of child-friendly methods
o Promoting the child’s voice has become something of a moral crusade within the research community (Lewin, 2010)
o Important to recognize that in research one also must consider the context within which the child’s voice is heard.

Question 53

• What is the Protection from Harm ?

Answer 53

o Legal and professional ethical codes for researchers require that adult researchers protect children from harm
o Any abuse uncovered as apart of research should be reported to the relevant authorities (also compromises confidentiality
o Researcher must report to authorities if a participant reports:
o They are going to hurt someone
o They are going to hurt themselves
o Someone threatened to hurt them

Question 54

• Who does the UNCR apply to?

Answer 54

o Applies to everyone under the age of 18

Question 55

• What is the UNCR?

Answer 55

o Legally binding international document which subjects ratifying nation states to inspection by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child.
o Committee expects reports from every ratifying nation detailing how it has implemented the articles of the Convention (UNCRC, Article 44).
o Optional Protocol 3: Sets out an international complaints process for any violations of children’s rights

Question 56

• What are articles 2,3,6,12?

Answer 56

o Non-Discrimination (Article 2): Protection from all forms of discrimination or punishment.
o CRC refers to “every child” or “the child” without qualification or restriction.
o Video: 4 Guiding Principles
o Best Interests of the Child (Article 3): In all actions concerning children, the best interests of the child must be a primary consideration.
o Adults must consider how their decisions impact on children.
o Video: 4 Guiding Principles
o Right to Life (Article 6): Every child has the inherent right to life.
o The survival and development of the child is paramount.
o Video: 4 Guiding Principles
o Participation (Article 12): The right to express views in all matters affecting the child.
o Views of the child must be given due weight in accordance with age and maturity

Question 57

• What are the three p’s of children’s rights?

Answer 57

o Rights to Provision (such as food and shelter)
o Rights to Protection (for example, from abuse)
o Rights to Participation (in matters concerning the child)

Question 58

• What are the Three conditions that govern when a child can and cannot participate?- article 2 and 12.2

Answer 58

o the child has to be seen as competent by adults to hold a view;
o the child has to be considered old enough or mature enough to have a view; and
o if the adult judges that these two conditions are met, only then is the child’s view considered.

Question 59

• Why do children’s participation matter?

Answer 59

o to fulfill the requirements of the UNCRC
o to improve services to children
o to empower children

Question 60

• What is Adultism?

Answer 60

• Adultism: adults are superior to children. Adults have power over children
• Children viewed as objects of adult intervention and the property of parents

Question 61

• Who was Eglantyne Jebb?

Answer 61

o 1923 drafted: The Declaration of the Rights of the Child
o Founded the Save the Children Charity in the United Kingdom
o Concern for children suffering in the aftermath of the First World War
o ‘For better or worse, the world can be revolutionised in one generation according to how we deal with the children,’ Jebb in Holland, 2004: 102).
o Jebb’s draft, the first version of ‘The Rights of the Child’ in 1923, adopted by the League of Nations in 1924

Question 62

• The elements of the beginning of The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child? (UNCRC)

Answer 62

o 1959: United Nations produced a new Declaration of the Rights of the Child
o 1989: the Convention was formally drawn up - the most recent document
o Ratified by most of the countries in the world
o United States still has not, however was instrumental in drafting the Convention
o United States does not ratify because it is concerned that the rights outlined in the UNCRC may interfere with other rights, such as the rights of parents over children (Earls, 2011)

Question 63

• What was Criticism: Universalistic Approach?

Answer 63

o Assumption: all children are the same.
o Childhood is defined by Westernized notions of developmentalism and protectionism.
o Abstract Universalism and Cultural Relativity
o Abstract Universalism: ignores the cultural context within which a child lives, and denies children agency (Nieuwenhuys, 2008: 7)
o Nieuwenhuys (2008: 7): “In the name of children’s right to an abstract good called childhood, abstract universalism actually reduces children to mere victims in need of expert scrutiny and guidance.”
o Also against employing cultural relativity.
o Assumption that all cultures are neutral and equal and therefore cannot be judged nor compared.

Question 64

• What is Abstract Universalism vs. Cultural-Relativist?

Answer 64

o Cultural relativists: “culture is an enduring phenomenon”
o Abstract universalists: “childhood is”
o An extreme cultural-relativist position means opposing any interventions in local cultural practice
o An extreme abstract universalism would see taking no action as immoral – must take every option possible
o What is needed is a rejection of both positions in favour of a focus on children’s perspectives and children’s agency (Nieuwenhuys, 2008)

Question 65

• What is the Hart (1992) ‘Rungs’ on the ladder progress?

Answer 65

o Example of Tokenism
o Craig et al (2005) uncovered some of the challenges of children’s participation as it relates to Hart’s ladder.
o Funding was delivered locally through community groups and dependent on children and young people sitting on the local funding committees
o Children and youth were expected to contribute to decisions about where funding should be allocated.
o Yet one local funding committee consistently had a problem getting young people to sit on the committee.

• What are the Shier (2001) Five Levels of Children’s Participation?
• To assist adults in their efforts to facilitate children’s participation, Shier (2001) developed five levels of children’s participation.
• Not intended to replace Hart’s ladder (discussed above)
• Five levels and incorporates, at every level, openings and opportunities for adults to promote child participation.
• Also takes into account the policy or legal obligations

Question 66

• What are the Four Typological Approaches?

Answer 66

• Paternalistic: Children are becomings in need of protection, dependent, and incompetent
• Welfare: children are mainly considered incompetent but could be considered competent if proof of competency is demonstrated
• Liberation: Children independent citizens who are competent and have rights to autonomy and full participation in society
• Emancipation: Starts at the opposite end from welfarists – children are competent unless it can be shown that they are not

Question 67

• What is an example of article 4.6?

Answer 67

• BOX 4.6 Examples: In one court judgement in Connecticut, United States, a 17-year-old was denied the right to refuse treatment for her cancer. Child protection officers removed her from the care of her mother, and she was forced to undergo treatment

Question 68

• What is article 9 ?

Answer 68

o The UNCRC and relevant articles From the Preamble: Recognizing that the child, for the full and harmonious development of his or her personality, should grow up in a family environment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love and understanding.

Question 69

• What is article 20?

Answer 69

children unable to live with their family)
o If a child cannot be looked after by
o their immediate family, the government must give them special protection and assistance. This includes making sure
o the child is provided with alternative care that is continuous and respects the child’s culture, language and religion

Question 70

• What were the Birnbaum and Saini (2013): Main Findings?

Answer 70

o Majority of children were surprised that their parents were separating because it had not been communicated to them previously
o Most children were sad that their parents were separating, a few felt relieved
o Children worried about being caught between their parents
o Wanted some say in their post-separation residence
o Children did not want to choose one parent over another - just wanted to be heard, to be fair to both parents, and to share their time equally between parents.
o Majority wanted to be better informed at all stages of the process.
o Valued having someone to talk to, such as someone appointed by the court However, not all children wanted to talk to strangers about their parents’ divorce.
o Residence decision made by the court and is based on what is in the best interest of the child

Question 71

• What happened French Society?

Answer 71

o Functioned by a system of obligations and protections involving patriarchal heads of families and the state
o System fell apart in the French Revolution
o Patriarchal control of the family disintegrated for many reasons:
o Certain segments of the population were without adequate state or familial control (e.g., the abandonment of illegitimate babies, the old, and sick to save expense).

Question 72

• What is Tutelary Complex?

Answer 72

o The Tutelary Complex: welfare through advice used to create the “family” home
o Aim to protect children and create productive future citizens –institutions developed to keep children safe on the path to becoming a good future citizen of the state
o In North America, the state promoted scientific child rearing
o Move to industrialization and urbanization
o the medicalization of childbirth
o Move to scientific mothering and child rearing. Removed power from women midwives and gave to doctors and other specialists

Question 73

• What is Tutelary Complex?

Answer 73

o The Tutelary Complex: welfare through advice used to create the “family” home
o Aim to protect children and create productive future citizens –institutions developed to keep children safe on the path to becoming a good future citizen of the state
o In North America, the state promoted scientific child rearing
o Move to industrialization and urbanization
o the medicalization of childbirth
o Move to scientific mothering and child rearing. Removed power from women midwives and gave to doctors and other specialists

Question 74

• What is OCL law and key elements?

Answer 74

o Laweryer for children during divorce
o whether both parents are able to provide adequate care;
o how clear and unambivalent the wishes are;
o how informed the expression is;
o the age of the child;
o the maturity level;
o the strength of the wish;
o the length of time the preference has been expressed for;
o practicalities;
o the influence of the parent(s) on the expressed wish or preference;
o the overall context; and
o the circumstances of the preference from the child’s point of view
o When representing a parent, these criteria are very helpful guiding principles in ascertaining whether a child’s wishes should be specifically sought and how they are to be presented to the Court. These criteria can also focus the parent on the child’s perspective

Question 75

• What were the ‘Sixties Scoop’?

Answer 75

o In Canada, between 1960 and 1980, about 20,000 children were taken
o Many of the children were emotionally and/or sexually abused by the families who adopted them (Narine, 2012).
o These kinds of policies of forced assimilation have since been described as genocide (Van Krieken, 1999).
o These policies are no longer in effect, there are still disproportionately higher numbers of Indigenous children in the care system that non-indigenous children(e.g., in Australia and Canada)
o The figures might seem to be reflecting racist approaches to child welfare and protection. Trocmé et al., (2004)point out, there is a more complex explanation
o First, more risk factors among the Indigenous population (e.g., poor housing, high rates of single-parent families) which child protection officers take account of
o Second, the experiences of abuse suffered in residential schools might affect parenting of future generations (Trocmé et al., 2004

Question 76

• How were black children effected by the welfare system?

Answer 76

o In Ontario, Black children are over-represented in the child welfare system relative to presence in the child population- over-represented in the decision to investigate.
o “In 2013, Approx. 8% of Black children in Ontario were the subject of a child welfare investigation for maltreatment, compared to 5% of White children

Question 77

• How did children in trouble with the law effect people?

Answer 77

o Moral Panic: refers to the public’s heightened fear of crime or other social threat that is often caused by over-reporting of the media (Cohen, 1980)
o Over-reporting of a particular crime results in the general public having a skewed perception
o Fuelling panic among the general public and leads to call for more changes law enforcement practices to deal with the “threat”
*

Question 78

• How did children in trouble with the law effect people?

Answer 78

o Moral Panic: refers to the public’s heightened fear of crime or other social threat that is often caused by over-reporting of the media (Cohen, 1980)
o Over-reporting of a particular crime results in the general public having a skewed perception
o Fuelling panic among the general public and leads to call for more changes law enforcement practices to deal with the “threat”
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Question 79

Theme 1: The Playful Child

Answer 79

• Play as their predominant occupation
• Children & childhood characterised by play and playful interactions, but this play excludes adults and is controlled by children themselves.
• Children have a specific understanding of play (imagination) and unlike an adult’s understanding of play.
• Play for adults is different. Playing alongside children to provide ‘help’.
• Adults viewed a facilitators of play

Question 80

THEME 2: Unknowing Child

Answer 80

• Children lack knowledge or understanding about a range of situations, information or abilities
• The children were arguing over a ‘cops and robbers’ game when a child said, “Sometimes policeman get shot, then they are hurt…I saw it…and my dad said so”
• Knowledge is valuable to children. Knowledge as information and as a skill

Question 81

THEME 3: Needful Child

Answer 81

• Demonstrate dependency or trust for adults to ‘make it better’, to provide physical care, solve problems and protect.
• ‘Not related to information or skills, rather it is an emotional state that is satisfied by the nature of the relationship with the adult.
• Characteristics of the ‘Romantic Child’
• E.g., when pretending to be adults, one child said, “He needs his Mommy, she’s coming now