CHYS -1001 pt 1

Question 1

What are the 4 Different Approaches to Understanding Identity?

Answer 1

1. Historical
2. Sociocultural
3. Psychosocial
4. Narrative

Question 2

What is the historical approach to understanding identity?

Answer 2

Historical: important to understand historical context in understanding the identity formation process. identity is a social construct!
Baumeister: medieval & early modern times = clearly defined identity
Medieval times: age, sex, and family were determinants of life path
Early 20th century = unclear adolescent/adult identity path

Question 3

What is the sociocultural approach to understanding identity?

Answer 3

Sociocultural: the role that society plays in providing (or not providing) individual identity alternatives
“Loose” vs. “Tight” societies (Triandis, 1989) – variation on how much opportunity for individual choice a society provides.
Many identity theorist argue that identity is a reflection to an individual’s adaption to social and cultural conditions (Cote & Levine, 2002)

Question 4

What is the psychosocial approach to understanding identity?

Answer 4

Psychosocial: integrates both societal & psychological factors at play in developing and maintaining personal identity. Erik Erikson first to appreciate the psychosocial nature of identity and recognized the important role of community

Question 4

What is the psychosocial approach to understanding identity?

Answer 4

Psychosocial: integrates both societal & psychological factors at play in developing and maintaining personal identity. Erik Erikson first to appreciate the psychosocial nature of identity and recognized the important role of community

Question 5

What is the narrative approach to understanding identity?

Answer 5

Narrative: Identities are constructed, justified and maintained via language and storytelling. This approach can be found among many other approaches however, it is also considered as an approach within its own.

Question 6

What is self-concept?

Answer 6

-General term refers to how someone thinks about themselves.
-To be aware of oneself (e.g., self-evaluation)
-Private mental image of ourselves – beliefs about the kind of person we are

Question 7

What is an ego?

Answer 7

-Ego: a positive driving force in personality and identity development (Erik Erikson).
-Contact with outside world through cognitive processes, thinking, perceiving, remembering, reasoning and attending
-Maintaining a strong sense of self = strength of one’s ego
-Example: ability to accept criticism and/or praise

Question 8

What is an identity: a complex entity?

Answer 8

-Understanding what identity means, and
-Understanding how it evolves over the course of the life span have been the inspiration for many theories and research investigations
-Themes of stability and change

Question 9

Explain the origins of identity: Erik Erikson

Answer 9

-Erikson (1956) generally credited as the first to bring scientific attention to identity and to make it popular
-Trained under Freud in Vienna
-Role of the ego = establish and maintain a sense of identify
-First used the term ego identity to describe a central disturbance in the psychological lives of some veterans returning from World War II

-What impressed me the most was the loss in these men of a sense of identity. They knew who they were; they had a personal identity. But it was as if, subjectively, their lives no longer hung together—and never would again … this sense of identity provides the ability to experience one’s self as something that has continuity and sameness and to act accordingly. (Erikson, 1963, p. 42)

-According to Erikson - easier to understand a psychological phenomenon such as ego identity –when it’s presence has been disrupted
-Identity: involves a subjective feeling of self-sameness and continuity over time (the same in different places and different social settings)
-Ensures a reasonable sense of social order across multiple contexts
-Erikson (1969) also spoke of identity as both a conscious and unconscious process

Question 10

What are the three interacting elements that shape ego identity?

Answer 10

-A human being, thus, is at all times an organism, an ego and a member of society and is involved in all three processes of organization (Erikson, 1963, p.32)
Tripartite Nature of Ego Identity

1. Biological characteristics
   Individual’s physical appearance, physical capacities, and limitations provide one with a sense of “bodily self”. Adaptation as one ages
2. One’s unique psychological needs, interests, and defenses
   One’s unique feelings, interests, needs, and defenses, gives the sense of “I”
   3.Cultural context (milieu) in which one resides
   Societal and cultural influence - provide opportunities for expression as well as recognition of biological and psychological needs and interests

Question 11

What is optimal Identity Development?

Answer 11

-For Erikson, optimal identity development involves finding social roles and niches within the larger community that provide a “fit” for one’s biological and psychological capacities and interests

Question 12

Explain Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial development?

Answer 12

-Erik Erikson (1902-1994) proposed eight stages of development (infancy to older adulthood)
-Stages are characterized by a specific crisis that the individual must resolve (psychosocial tasks requiring resolution at different stages of the life span)

Question 13

What are Erikson’s 8 stages of Psychosocial Development?

Answer 13

1. Trust vs. Mistrust: 0-18months
2. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (18months to 3yrs)
3. Initiative versus Guilt (3-6years)
4. Industry versus Inferiority (6-12 years)
5. Identity versus Role Confusion (12-20 years, Adolescence to early adulthood)
6. Intimacy versus Isolation (early adulthood)
7. Generativity versus Stagnation, Adulthood
8. Integrity versus Despair, Maturity

Question 14

Explain Trust versus Mistrust (birth 18 months)

Answer 14

-Infants’ development relates to whether they can or cannot trust their world
-If infants’ needs are met: emerge considering the world a safe and dependable place. Enters subsequent stages with hope.
-If infants’ needs are not met: emerge with a sense of the world being untrustworthy
-Provides a legacy of how best to approach the world

Question 15

Explain Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months–3 years)

Answer 15

-Erikson’s second stage - child must develop a strong sense of autonomy while adjusting to social demands
-Toddlers have the capacity to move about and do a number of things on their own.
-Forming a sense of self-control without loss of self-esteem = lasting sense of autonomy and pride.

Question 16

Explain Initiative vs Guilt (3 to 6 years)

Answer 16

-Erikson’s third stage– children identify with and learn from parents, must achieve a balance between initiative and guilt
Freedom to explore and experiment tends to develop initiative
Those restricted and find that their use of initiative is oppressed tend to develop a sense of guilt about pursuing their interests
“Trusting their environment and feeling the necessary autonomy to move freely in it, children reinforce the attitude of initiative associated with stage 3”

Question 17

Explain Industry versus Inferiority (6-11 years):

Answer 17

-Erikson’s fourth stage - children must achieve cognitive and social skills, work industriously and cooperate
-Develop a sense of industry - usually through praise from a significant other
OR
-Develop feelings of inadequacy or inferiority – lacking experiences of success
Establishes the basis for one’s attitudes toward finding and completing later identity-defining tasks

Question 18

Explain dentity versus Role Confusion (12-18 years)

Answer 18

-Erikson’s fifth stage– critical stage for achievement of identity, physical changes are accompanied by sexual urges and strong social pressures
-Independence from parents
-Who am I? Where am I going?

Question 19

Explain Role Confusion

Answer 19

-The counterpoint of identity
-Refers to the inability to make moves toward identity-defining commitments
-Problems with sense of industry?
-Necessary to experience some kind of role confusion – letting go of childhood and forging one’s own commitments in life

Question 20

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Answer 20

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Question 21

What are some Additional Identity Concepts

Answer 21

-Identity Crisis: a key turning point in one’s identity development
-Foreclosure: a premature closure on identity
-Negative identity: greater attention on negative identity, maladaptive identity resolution whereby an individual bases an identity on all the identifications and roles presented to them in their earlier development as being undesirable or even dangerous (e.g., preacher’s daughter found among narcotics addicts)
-Moratorium: one lives “suspended”. Delay of adult commitments

Question 22

What is the narrative approach to identity ?

Answer 22

Language is a text out of which identities are constructed, justified, and maintained (McAdams, 1988)
A part of other approaches, however considered an approach within its own right
Biographies are studied – how do people make sense of their lives. How do people give meaning and coherence to events that take place
McAdams (1988) constructed stories serve as the basis of identity

McAdam’s quote “We create stories, and we live according to narrative assumptions.… As the story evolves and our identity takes form, we come to live the story as we write it.… ”

Question 23

What is the narrative approach to identity ?

Answer 23

Language is a text out of which identities are constructed, justified, and maintained (McAdams, 1988)
A part of other approaches, however considered an approach within its own right
Biographies are studied – how do people make sense of their lives. How do people give meaning and coherence to events that take place
McAdams (1988) constructed stories serve as the basis of identity

McAdam’s quote “We create stories, and we live according to narrative assumptions.… As the story evolves and our identity takes form, we come to live the story as we write it.… ”

Question 24

What are the 3 layers of personality?

Answer 24

Layer 1: Dispositional Traits: Self as Actor
Develop earlier than other layers. Temperament early developing building block of personality. Typical way infants behave, express their emotions. Traits make up a person’s individuality (e.g., shy, impulsive)
Layer 2: Character Adaptations: Self as Motivated Agent
How people act on their needs, values, goals, and motivations. Ones own individual wishes. People make efforts to actualize their goals (e.g., educational aspirations).
Layer 3: Narrative Identity: Self as Autobiographical Author
Internalized and evolving self-narrative

Question 25

Explain Narrative Approach to Identity

Answer 25

-The “telling“ of the self – synthesizes many me (self-concepts) elements and provide “coherence and unity through the passage of time and discrepant”
-“Me”: Product of the “I” construct

-when a person or you tell a story when all of it makes sense it equals me, when the stories don’t equal the person you belive then it doesn’t equal me
- when I + I + I + I=me

-Life Story
Life story: portrays the characteristic ways – “I” arranges elements of the me into a temporal sequence (settings, plot characters)

Question 26

What are the Five questions of a life story?

Answer 26

1. What is a life story in terms of structure and content?
2. What is the function of a life story?
3. How does a life story develop over time?
4. What kinds of individually different life stories are there?
5. What constitutes an optimal life story?

This approach emphasizes an understanding of the whole person, how life experiences are integrated. Opposed to understand of isolated values, accomplishments, or other personality features.

Question 27

What are some Narrative Approach: Criticisms ?

Answer 27

-Narrative approach criticized for lacking scientific criteria for analysis ( Marcia & Strayer, 1996)
-Limited in its ability to describe general processes of identity development?

Question 28

What are Measurement of Identity in Narrative Approaches?

Answer 28

-Qualitative methods used in narrative
-Ethnographic studies
-Cases studies and biographical studies of single individuals
-With qualitative method, researchers can build a complex, —-holistic picture of an individual, examined in a naturalistic setting.
-Semi-structured interview
-Qualitative work and Finding themes

Question 29

What is Narrative approach: Emerging identities ?

Answer 29

-You know when you were younger, how everything seems so like happy and stuff? (Uh huh) You kind of wake up.
- 11 year old telling a researcher about a life-changing event
-Self understanding is grounded in narrative
-Self understanding evolves from: stories that we tell to others about ourselves and the stories that we hear about ourselves from others (McAdams, 1993, 2006)
-Life story = dynamic collection of self-defining memories that are in narrative form & can be organized by major life periods
(Conway, Singer, & Tagini, 2004)

-life stories require the ability to recall memories for past events, self-reflect on these events, & organize events based on personal meaning that they hold
“true” life stories only possible by mid-adolescence (around 15 years of age)
(Habermas & Bluck, 2000)
Previous research (Habermas & de Silveira, 2008) revealed that children as young as 8 years old could provide life stories

• Research found life story developed in many important ways from middle childhood to early adulthood
  -Quantitative change of life narratives: length of life stories increased linearly with age

Question 30

What are Qualitative changes of life narratives ?

Answer 30

-there was a greater inclusion of causal connections between distant events & current personality with older participants
20% of 8-year-olds vs. over 75% of 12-20-year-olds.
-inclusion of “biographical arguments” = insights about life events & attributing one’s behaivour to characteristics (such as prior experience)
-increased statements of formative experiences
-inclusion of more complex cognitive reasoning
-overall coherence of life story followed a linear pattern with increasing age

Question 31

Importance of primary caregivers to support young children’s emerging personal narratives

Answer 31

-personal narratives begin almost as soon as children begin to talk (e.g., 18 month old: “Door. Hand. Showing uncle the door that he had pinched in door earlier that week”
-children’s early talk about past events is already emotional and evaluative (Miller & Sperry, 1988)
children’s early talk of past events also contains seeds of meaning making or subjective perspective
-Past-event narratives continue to get more complex and interesting
-Importance of primary caregivers to support young children’s emerging personal narratives
-evaluative narratives = include information about emotional states and subjective judgments (e.g., opinion of the narrator)
-elaborative narratives = refers to richer, more descriptive information being present
-Importance of primary caregivers to support
young children’s emerging personal narratives
-Co-constructive nature of emerging narratives
-Mothers who structure parent-child conversations about the past in a highly elaborative and evaluative fashion help their children tell richer, more evaluative narratives about the past (Fivush, Haden, & Reese, 2006)
-e.g., mothers that provided more evaluative info about past events to 3 year old children = these same children at age 5 produced more evaluative personal narratives

Question 31

Importance of primary caregivers to support young children’s emerging personal narratives

Answer 31

-personal narratives begin almost as soon as children begin to talk (e.g., 18 month old: “Door. Hand. Showing uncle the door that he had pinched in door earlier that week”
-children’s early talk about past events is already emotional and evaluative (Miller & Sperry, 1988)
children’s early talk of past events also contains seeds of meaning making or subjective perspective
-Past-event narratives continue to get more complex and interesting
-Importance of primary caregivers to support young children’s emerging personal narratives
-evaluative narratives = include information about emotional states and subjective judgments (e.g., opinion of the narrator)
-elaborative narratives = refers to richer, more descriptive information being present
-Importance of primary caregivers to support
young children’s emerging personal narratives
-Co-constructive nature of emerging narratives
-Mothers who structure parent-child conversations about the past in a highly elaborative and evaluative fashion help their children tell richer, more evaluative narratives about the past (Fivush, Haden, & Reese, 2006)
-e.g., mothers that provided more evaluative info about past events to 3 year old children = these same children at age 5 produced more evaluative personal narratives

Question 32

What is the importance of Precursors to the development of personal narratives/life stories ?

Answer 32

Attachment relationship also affects quality of children’s emerging narratives, specifically the evaluative nature of early childhood reminiscing (Reese, Newcombe, & Bird, 2006)

Question 33

What is attachment?

Answer 33

An emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time

Question 34

How did Bowlby challenged Freud’s assumptions?

Answer 34

Challenging the notion - infants were totally dependent and organised their behaviour around purely instinctive drives
Psychoanalytic theory
“I love you because you feed me”
Freud
Caregiver provides gratification of innate drive to obtain pleasure
Feeding = oral gratification = attachment
John Bowlby
“Perhaps I was born to love”
Individual differences in the quality and quantity of care provided by caregivers would inevitably give rise to differences in development and to emergent secure or insecure control systems.

Question 35

What did Konrad Lorenz do/ discover ?

Answer 35

Bowlby Influenced by evolutionary theory
Observational studies with animals done by ethologists like Konrad Lorenz who is well known for studying imprinting in goslings
Imprinting is an innate and adaptive form of learning where the young of certain species become attached to their mothers – it occurs automatically
First to describe the attachment behavior in geese after hatching
Critical period and is irreversible
Attachment was promoted by instinctual responses
Both infant and caregivers biologically prepared
Attachment is relationship (not a behaviour) and can therefore be viewed as a special type of social relationship that involves an affective bond
A major developmental milestone in the young child’s life.

Question 36

What are the Individual Differences in Attachment Behaviour?

Answer 36

Differences in quality

Question 37

What was the Strange Situation?

Answer 37

Standardized laboratory measure
Series of increasingly stressful episodes of separations and reunions

Question 38

What are the three types of attachment behaviour and who came up with them?

Answer 38

Ainsworth et al. (1978) identified three different patterns of attachment behaviour and labelled these:
Secure, Insecure-Avoidant, and Insecure-Ambivalent.
Main and Solomon (1990) recognised a fourth category: insecure-disorganised.

Question 39

Describe Secure Attachment

Answer 39

high-quality pattern of attachment with attachment figure.
In the Strange Situation, may be upset when the caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress.
Use caregivers as a secure base for exploration. Acknowledge caregiver from a distance with a wave or smile, openly communicate their feelings of distress and readily return to exploration

Question 40

Describe Insecure-ambivalent attachment

Answer 40

children who combine strong contact (and often hostility) with resistant contact, or remain inconsolable and are unable to return to exploration.
In the Strange Situation, infants tend to become very upset when the caregiver leaves and are not readily comforted by strangers.
When the caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them (e.g., back and forth between wanting physical contact and resisting contact).
the child blames themselves
outlook on the world = people are generally good i’m the problem

Question 41

Describe Insecure/avoidant attachment

Answer 41

infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver.
In the Strange Situation, these children do not seem to be distressed and either ignore, avoid or pull away from the caregiver upon reunion
If these children become upset when left alone, they are as easily comforted by a stranger as by the caregiver.
the child doesn’t trust people

Question 42

Describe Insecure-disorganized attachment

Answer 42

Infants in this category seem to have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation.
Exhibit a range of undirected behavioural responses such as freezing, head banging and hand clapping and appear disorientated by producing conflicting motivations, e.g. even in the presence of the caregiver they demonstrate the desire to escape from the situation.
Experiences of physical/sexual abuse and severe neglect are often associated with this pattern of behaviour. (Cichetti and Beeghly, 1987)

Question 43

Explain Working models or representations of attachment relationships

Answer 43

Early child–parent relationships are prototypes for love and romantic relationships in later adult life
Working models: can be viewed as affective/cognitive constructs that develop during behavioural interaction and communication between the young child and his/her principle caregivers.
Child abstracts from these expectations a set of assumptions as to how close relationships function and how they are used in stressful situations and everyday life.

Question 44

Explain Long-term Effects of Secure attachment

Answer 44

Most children fall into this category
Children generally happy, and enjoy being around their parent
Children feel protected by their caregivers, & they know that they can depend on them to return

Question 45

Explain Long-term Effects of Insecure attachment

Answer 45

Children not confident that their caregiver will be protected or comforted by their caregivers. As a result, insecurely attached children can struggle with self-soothing and regulating negative emotion.

Question 46

Overall Attachment and Narratives

Answer 46

Securely attached children experience an early reminiscing environment that is more evaluative but does not necessarily mean they receive more orienting info (e.g., where, when, who; Newcombe & Reese, 2004).
Only securely attached children internalize their mothers’ evaluative style of reminiscing by the end of early childhood

Question 47

What are some Biological Changes (puberty)

Answer 47

Puberty: The complex sequence of biological changes. Process of becoming a sexually mature adult, reproducing capabilities, gaining the height, weight, body contours, and increased strength and tolerance for the physical activity of adulthood (Bogin, 1994).
When does puberty begin?
not a single process, rather a continuum of changes the evolve gradually over the course of adolescence
Resulting in mature reproductive capacity, and the development of secondary sex characteristics (features that appear during puberty – e.g., growth of facial hair for boys and enlargement of breasts for girls)
Timing of puberty varies greatly
Timing and tempo of puberty are genetically controlled, also influences by nutrition, health status, and additional environmental factors

Question 48

What are some Biological, Psychological, and Societal influences on Early Adolescence Identity ?

Answer 48

Youth in early adolescence undergoing multiple transition within different areas of development, biological, psychological, and social/cultural changes
Dealing with biological changes and the many cultural messages youth receive about the implications of having and adult anatomy
Social transitions – moving from elementary to a junior high or middle school
Interrelated factors (biological, social, and psychological) affect identity during early adolescence

Question 49

What are some Pubertal Changes ?

Answer 49

Archibald et al., 2003 list five general areas of physical functioning that change over the course of pubertal development (during 5 or 6 years)
The ‘growth spurt”
Increases in and redistribution of body fat and muscle tissue
Changes in circulatory and respiratory systems (new found abilities in strength and endurance)
Maturation of secondary sexual characteristics and reproductive organs, and
Changes in hormonal and endocrine systems (regulating the timing pubertal events)

Question 50

What are some Psychological Issues that come with puberty?

Answer 50

End of childhood - beginning of puberty and the transition into early adolescence
When does childhood end?
According to Erikson all the “sameness and continuity” of earlier years are brought into question.
The process of puberty brings new questions of identity at the time of early adolescence.
The physiological changes of puberty and new society demands raise identity related questions to surface

Erikson does not detail identity-related tasks specific to early adolescence rather outlines identity-related tasks of adolescence more generally. Tasks more relevant to mid-and late adolescence
Kegan (1982) highlights theoretical gap in Erikson’s theory
Erikson misses a stage between “industry” and “identity”
Does not really address the period of connection, inclusion, and highly invested mutuality which comes between more independence-oriented periods of latency and identity formation

Question 51

What is Affiliation vs. Abandonment stage? (by Kegan)

Answer 51

Kegan describes an Affiliation vs. Abandonment stage, an additional to Erikson’s 8-stage sequence of psychosocial tasks
Psychosocial conflict of early adolescence (12-13 year olds) – concerns with being liked and accepted by the group
Kroger (1983) two thirds of youth expressed little tolerance for a peer who was not part of the group

Question 52

What are some Identity-defining Tasks of Early Adolescence?

Answer 52

Marcia (1983) outlines “the necessity of beginning to free oneself from the dictates of the “internalized parent.”
Internalized parent refers to the prohibitions and aspirations from one’s parents
Growing desire for autonomy. Increased conflict at home at the time of puberty and physical maturation
Beginning to differentiate one’s own interests, needs, attitudes, and attributions from one’s parents and significant others is initiated

Question 53

Rituals

Answer 53

Clearly present a change in status from child to adolescent or adult.
Rites of passage commonly hold three elements:
A phase that separates individuals from their previous social roles/identities
Takes them through a time of transition to a new identity
Incorporates them into a new role or status
Informs the adolescents and community of new status and expectations

Western, technologically advanced nations have no such clear delineation between childhood and adolescent, or adult status
Dual ambivalence occurs- ambivalence on the part of society and adolescents themselves regarding role expectations for youth
E.g., obtain a driver’s license at 15 or 16, age 18 to vote

Question 54

Do Societal Markers Help or Hinder?

Answer 54

Clear social markers help youth transition to the next phase/role. Youth in Western cultures long for some kind of social clarity regarding their adolescent and/or adult status (Elkind, 1981)
Contemporary lack of societal or culturally sanctioned rites of passage are – ideal conditions for ego growth and identity development among adolescents (no imposed order) (Marcia, 1983)

Question 55

Coming to Terms with Pubertal Change: Identity Implications

Answer 55

Pubertal adolescents are very preoccupied with their physical changes and appearance

Research shows changes of puberty generally are viewed positively by boys and negatively by girls

Question 56

What are some issues with Coming to Terms with Pubertal Change: Identity Implications ?

Answer 56

Boys : Advantages of increased size
Increased muscle mass and physical strength

Girls :Increases in body weight and in fat deposits at the time of puberty

For girls greater body dissatisfaction – conflict with North American and European ideals of slimness and elongated body shape

Boys and Body Image
One study (Nagata et al., 2019) found weight gain attempts to be common among adolescent boys. In this sample approx. 30% of adolescent boys reported attempts to gain weight. Note: approx. 40% of the boys that reported attempts to gain weight were classified at normal weight (using BMI).
Note: parents sometime pass on their inscerites to their childer or give their children “” without knowing

Question 57

What is self-esteem ?

Answer 57

How we value or respect ourselves
The outward signs of positive self-esteem:
Confidence
Self-direction
An awareness of personal strengths
Optimism
Feeling comfortable with a wide range of emotions

The signs of low self-esteem:
Negative view of life
Perfectionist attitude
Mistrusting others – even those who show signs of affection
Blaming behavior
Fear of taking risks
Feelings of being unloved and unlovable
Dependence – letting others make decisions
Fear of being ridiculed (Rama, 2017, p.35)

Question 58

what is self-efficacy ?

Answer 58

Self-efficacy: “―beliefs in one’s capabilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to meet given situational demands‖(Wood, R., & Bandura, 1989,p.408).

Level of competency (e.g., trying out for a team because one believes that they can make the team)

Can I make new friend?

Research finds physical appearance to be an important predictor of a teenager’s self-esteem.

-the way the child feel about their physical appearance calences out how they feel about everything else ex: good academics but not feeling good about physical appearance

Question 59

Some Puberty, Body image and Self-Esteem examples ?

Answer 59

Majority of Caucasian adolescent girls are dissatisfied with their body (would like to be thinner)
Body dissatisfaction and feeling overweight spills into dissatisfaction with one’s self and lowered self-esteem
Girls were consistently less satisfied with their weight and body type than boys (from grade 6-10) (Simmons & Blyth, 1987)
At each grade, girls had lower senses of self-esteem than boys and greater degree of self-consciousness.
Boys more positive body image than girls
Girls tend to be most satisfied with their bodies when perceived themselves to be slightly underweight

Question 60

Explain Being an Early, on time, or late Maturer and Identity Implications?

Answer 60

Most timing effects seem to be related to early, not late physical maturation

Boys: early maturers hold a more positive body image

Girls: late maturers feel more positive regarding their physical attractiveness than early maturers.

High self-esteem found among late maturing girls and higher incidence of eating-related problems found among early maturing girls compared to their on time or late maturing counterpart

Question 61

Explain Transgender Children During Puberty?

Answer 61

Trans Pulse: research conducted in 3 Ontario cities with 85 transgender community members and 4 family member

“59% report they knew that their gender identity did not match their body before the age of 10,

80% had this knowledge by the age of 14.” (Bauer & Scheim, 2015 p.2)

Question 62

What is the Link between pubertal timing and identity crisis ?

Answer 62

Used retrospective self-report data from late adolescent men and women
Found: Early maturing boys and late maturing girls were less apt to have experienced a personal decision-making identity crisis when compared to late maturing males and early maturing girls
Why?
The experience of being “different” in relation to one’s peers may precipitate a crisis of personal identity

Question 63

Explain Contexts Affecting Early Adolescent Identity Development ?

Answer 63

Many of these relational changes raise identity-related issues
Time of disequilibrium in their relationships with others
Examine interaction among biological maturation, relationships, and the social and historical contexts

Important to understand issues of socialization both within the family (e.g., connection and autonomy) and to examine how schools, neighborhoods, places of community service, and cultural norms all interact during the identity-formation process of early adolescence.
Research reports parents first, and peers second to be the contexts of primary influence for early adolescent identity development, however, all context and social networks influence contribute influence child’s socialization experiences.
But, if quality of conditions with the family decreases, the contexts of other socialization contexts increases

Question 64

Explain the family during puberty?

Answer 64

Reciprocal socialization processes: both parent and child socialize each other (bi-directional socialization)
“I ship them.”
Longitudinal study found: more negative adolescents felt about their parents, the more negative the parents felt about their adolescents (Kim et al., 2001)
Early adolescents, the biological changes of puberty, cognitive maturity = reorganization in parent-child relationships

Family conflicts increase during this time and then decrease thereafter
Distancing increased desires for privacy and decreasing physical affection. Distancing phenomenon: generally temporary (not a serious breech in family relationships)
Conflicts regarding: chores, dress and other daily issues. Growing need for autonomy by adolescent
By late adolescence – parents and youths relationships again more intimate

Question 65

Explain Identity Exploration and Family ?

Answer 65

Identity exploration highest among early adolescents in families where:
mothers generally approved of their child’s behavior but dissatisfied with the affective quality of their relationship
mothers reported high frequencies of conflict with the adolescent.
father and the adolescent were most dissatisfied with one another’s behavior and dissatisfied with the affective quality of their relationship
low levels of father-adolescent conflict were reported

Question 66

Explain Friendships and the Peer Group?

Answer 66

Relations with peers undergo important transitions from childhood to early adolescence.
School-aged children: tend to choose friends on the basis of common activities
During early adolescence is enlarged so that friends are also likely to share interests, values, and beliefs
Looking for support and understanding from peers (Youniss & Smollar, 1985).

Friends and peer groups: a reference for testing new identity-related skills
Social support (approval from peers) is a strong predictor of global self-worth among young adolescents
Quality and stability of early adolescent friendships are also strongly linked to self-esteem
When friendships become unstable, early adolescents feel less satisfied (with their appearance and performance)
Association found between adolescent problem behavior and involvement in a peer group that places little value on constructive behaviors (e.g., Barber & Olsen, 1997).