CHYS -1001pt2

Question 1

Questions that happen in Mid-Adolescence

Answer 1

Changing biology played a less significant role in issues related to identity
Interest in sex, the peer group and the need to fit in, societal expectations, and thoughts about their futures played a bigger role
Questions of justice and of values were also raised
Some considered themselves in relation to larger issues of morality.

Question 2

Differences between the Early and Mid Adolescences

Answer 2

Eriksonian themes of biology, individual psychology, and social surroundings as ingredients of ego identity appear somewhat different proportional mix for mid adolescences compared with early adolescences responses

Question 3

What is Mid-Adolescence and what happens

Answer 3

-Definition of mid-adolescence: in terms of chronological age and psychosocial tasks- from 15-17 years old when most can make peace with biological transformation puberty and move towards more complex ways of thinking

In early adolescence lots of energy towards renegotiating place in the family –in mid adolescence energy is more often directed towards peer groups and place in peer group
Experimentations with a growing sense of personal identity, including sexual and sex role identity
Considering vocations
Moving toward greater participation in community roles

Question 4

What is the Biological Processes of Mid-Adolescence

Answer 4

Average mid-adolescent boy or girl will have nearly attained his or her adult height
An average 14-year-old girl and an average 16 year old boy have already reached about 98% of their total adult height. Noticeable increases in height stop at about 18 for women and 20 for men
Adults males on average 10% taller than adult females

By about 14, boys will surpass girls in height and weight
Approx. 50% of one’s adult body weight is generally gained during adolescence
Size of muscle cells generally continue to increase until late 20s
New found muscle coordination, strength, and endurance have some identity implications

Question 5

Mid-Adolescence and Timing of Puberty and Adult Height

Answer 5

Later maturing boys have a longer period of time to grow taller
Early maturing girls are likely to be shorter in stature than late maturing females
Height and weight following the growth spurt are strongly correlated with height and weight before puberty.
Tall relative to same sex peers prior to puberty, also likely to be taller than one’s peers following puberty

Question 6

What are some Mid-Adolescence Psychological Issues

Answer 6

True beginnings of Erikson’s Identity formation process begins
Previously, one’s sense of identity primarily formed through identification with significant others
Process of identification, primary school-aged children and young adults assume attributes (e., personality qualities, values) in an effort to organize a functional self

Question 7

What is the process of Mid-Adolescence and Identity?

Answer 7

Start to consider the choices and decisions from one’s previous identification

Erikson regards much of mid-to late adolescence as a psychosocial moratorium – role experimentation with a workable adult identity

Moratorium period is spend synthesizing all previous identifications of childhood and early adolescence into a new identity structure

According to Erikson (1968) the inability to settle on an occupational identity that most disturbs young people

Question 8

Explain A Sense of Vocational Direction

Answer 8

A sense of vocational direction requires the assessment of one’s skills, interests, and talents, and channels for expression.

During this time there is a serious considerations and assessments of one’s abilities and goals. Preparing for life after high school

What am I going to do after high school?

Question 9

Explain the Peers vs. Family Relationship

Answer 9

Peer support, peers with similar values, and support parents play important part of the youth’s self-defining process
Forming new relationship with one’s family begins
Peer groups become the primary focus of relational energy for many mid-adolescents and changes in identity occur
An increase in differentiating from one’s own values and from those of one’s parents begins – thus peer group takes on a new function
E.g., to protect fragile sense of identity – some youth may attempt ”totalistic identifications” with social group. Results in excluding other who are different
-over identification doing what ever the group does to fit in -can cause problems

Question 10

Explain Changing Attitudes towards Significant Others

Answer 10

Kroger examined changing relational attitudes toward different significant others by early, mid-, and late adolescents in three Western nations.
Some mid-adolescent responses to items dealing with parents:
15-year-old girl: When a girl is with her parents, she feels embarrassed if anyone sees her.
15-year-old boy: When a boy is with his parents, he tries to avoid his friends. (Kroger, 1983)

Question 11

Why are teenagers embarrassed by their parents?

Answer 11

Independence, perception, what to be seen as having a greater sense of independence (more than the or she actually have)

Increase need for privacy, do not want parent interfering in their privacy

Question 12

Explain Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years) what Erikson belives

Answer 12

Who am I? What am I all about? What am I going to do with my life? What is different about me? How can I make it on my own?

Adolescents seek leadership and inspiration, and gradually develop their own set of ideals

Question 13

Explain Identity vs. Identity Confusion

Answer 13

As part of their identity exploration, adolescents experience a psychosocial moratorium (i.e., experiment and try various roles)
Adolescents who do not successfully resolve the identity crisis suffer identity confusion

Question 14

Explain Role Experimentation

Answer 14

During moratorium and before they reach a stable sense of self, adolescents try out different roles.
Realization that one will soon be responsible for themselves and their lives. Search for what those lives are going to be.

Question 15

What are the four statuses of idenitity

Answer 15

James Marcia (1980, 1994, 2002) stresses that Erikson’s theory of identity development implies four identity statuses:

Identity diffusion
Identity foreclosure
Identity moratorium
Identity achievement

Question 16

Define each 4 identity statuses

Answer 16

Identity Achievement: Strong commitments following a period of exploration

Foreclosed: Strong commitments without a period of exploration- long term not well- they do not try anything new outside of what they are presented from family

Moratorium: Actively exploring different commitments -long term well

Identity Diffuse: No strong commitments with or without a period of exploration-commly linked to young offenders

Question 17

What is crisis and commitment related to identity?

Answer 17

Crisis: A period of identity development during which the adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives
Commitment: A personal investment in what an individual is going to do

Question 18

When are identity issues addresses?

Answer 18

Studies of identity formation among high school students suggest that it may not be until later adolescence, with an increase in societal demands that identity issues are ultimately addressed

E.g., pick a major
Pick a career
Relationship decisions

Question 19

Explain Mid-Adolescents and Cognitive Complexity

Answer 19

Mid-adolescents do develop a greater level of cognitive complexity (e.g., formal operations).
“Possibilities for imagining alternative futures through more developed and organized uses of formal operational logic (Piaget, 1972)”
For example, propositional logic: ability to generate hypotheses or statements, given certain conditions.
Thinking is more advanced and sophisticated

Question 20

Explain Change In Cognitive Capacities and Identity Formation

Answer 20

The ability to imagine alternative futures (hypothetical reasoning) and form possible future scenarios depending on different paths

Consider and plan out necessary steps to actualize such futures and what kind of future is most appropriate

Formal operational thinking generally begins to appear in early adolescence, often not before mid-adolescence that such skills begin to consolidate.
Identity formation requires flexible, abstract thinking skills and reality testing. Full formal operations supports this style of thinking

Research finds positive correlations between formal operational skills and degree of identity attained
Use of formal operational reasoning does NOT guarantee one’s ability to achieve a sense of identity.

Question 21

Explain Societal Influences

Answer 21

Social Institutions provide framework where identity takes shape and allowed expression
Social institutions dependent on youth members for shaping future
Societies foster some kind of moratorium process for their youth
Western cultures: high schools, work apprenticeship programs, youth divisions in many political groups, and volunteering opportunities

Question 22

How to create Positive Youth Development ?

Answer 22

Social policy aimed at trying to “fix” adolescents by preventing problem behaviors. What not to do.
instead of don’ts give them adive on what to do
stop doing this -deficte modle

Question 23

Explain the Importance of Youth Organization

Answer 23

Research with mid-adolescents and social contexts generally focused family, peer group, and school.
Many additional contexts that serve youth are being examined and appreciated (e.g., such as national and grassroots youth organizations, community and religious organizations, parks, and other recreation facilities).

Question 24

What are developmental assets

Answer 24

Developmental Assets: According to Benson these are individual strengths and environmental resources.

Question 25

What are Internal Assets: Positive Traits

Answer 25

Commitment to learning: Importance placed on learning & belief in one’s abilities
Positive values: Strong values to aid in the making healthy choices
Social competencies: skills to interact with others and cope with difficult and/or new situation s
Positive identity: Believe in their self-worth and a sense of agency

Question 26

What are External Assets: Positive features of Social System

Answer 26

Support: with people that love, care and accept them
Empowerment: Feel valued, safe and respect
Boundaries and expectations: Need rules and consequences. Need encouragement
Constructive use of time: opportunities to grow, learn and develop new skills (outside of school)

Question 27

Benson’s 40 Developmental Assets

Answer 27

Search Institute has extensively administered measure of 40 Individual Assets
Higher levels of assets associated with lower levels of risk behaviors (Shek & Zhu, 2019)
According to Search Institute less than half of youth (surveyed) report experiencing 20 or more assets. Also report youth need three or more adults (outside of the family) to help build assets
Number of assets experienced early in life linked to positive future outcomes
Many institutions applying this framework to support the development of youth assets.

Question 28

Ginzberg(1972) and Vocational Decision Making
How does a sense of vocational identity begin to develop?

Answer 28

Ginzberg (1972) views vocational decision making as an adaptive process, unfolding over three stages during childhood and adolescence
Three (3) stages of Career Development
1. Fantasy (up to 11 years of age)
2. Tentative (11 to 17)
3. Realistic ( 17 to 20s)

Question 29

Explain the 3 stages of career development and criticisms

Answer 29

Fantasy Stage
Children imagine act out an array of roles – real people seen in everyday life, heroes and characters seen on TV
Stereotypical roles: teacher, doctors, nurses, teacher, police officer
Children engage in imaginative play (e.g., costumes) and imitative different roles (e.g., playing firefighter)

Tentative Stage
Interest stage, thoughts about a vocation begin to reflect one’s own interests, recognize work requirements
Four stages in this period:
Interests: What do I like/dislike?
Abilities (capacities): What am I good at?
Values: education, money, social service, job security? Can work fulfil my personal needs (e.g., my values and principles are reflected in my career
Transition: What is needed to achieve any given role – becomes independent

Realistic Stage
Three periods within the realistic stage:
Exploration stage: explore tentative choices (e.g., formal schooling or training)
Crystallization stage: concentrate efforts in a career path (e.g., declare a major, internships). Commitment to a career path and choice reflect commitment
Specification Stage: Further specialized training is gained. Graduate career or professional training

Criticisms
Textbook outlines several criticisms:
Some contexts do not provide meaningful vocational opportunities for adolescents
Individual vary in the rate and timing of vocational development
Vocational decision-making process not limited to the adolescent period

Question 30

Should High School Students Have Part-Time Jobs?

Answer 30

According to Mortimer (2010) youth employment can have both negative and positive effects
e.g., can promote the healthy development – when work is moderate in intensity & steady

Question 31

Explain Part-Time Jobs During Mid-Adolescences

Answer 31

Many high school students have part time jobs
USA - sophomore students (grade 10) work about 15 hours per week and seniors (grade 12) work about 20 hours per week
Do these positions benefit things such as responsibility and the value of money and/or provide skills training?
Teens do spend their money on clothes, food and gas and some save for larger items (e.g., a car or university tuition)

Part-Time Work
Part-time work for high school students: fast-food restaurants or retail sales. These types of roles typically have little in common in teen’s eventual vocational choice.
Teens do exercise agency through work experiences (Mortimer, 2010)

Part-Time Work
Work is often repetitive and boring tasks. Teens do not necessarily develop special skills or interact with coworkers and supervisors.
Part time work for students provides limited positive, long-term impact.
Demands of part-time work may negatively impact school by limiting study time
May give rise to a sense of cynicism toward working environments among teens

Question 32

How does working a job impact schooling?

Answer 32

Not the job but number of hours
> 20 hours linked to negative academic outcomes
Intensive employment
Dropping out of school
Behavior in classroom
Strategies for protecting grades (e.g., taking easier courses, copying work)
Reason for link between job hours and negative outcomes – association attributed to self-selection, not work experience (Mortimer, 2010). Some students gravitate towards more intense work hours
When taking into account differences in attitude and behaviours – the negative consequences of part time work disappear

Question 33

Explain Identity Development and Vocational Decision Making

Answer 33

Identity status a stronger predictor of career maturity. Research finds career maturity is a stronger predictor of identity status than one’s self-concept.
Students higher in identity exploration and commitment showed greater career maturity than those who simply felt positive about themselves
High school students who explore a variety of career possibilities make career choices more in line with their own personality needs than adolescents who do not explore options as broadly (Grotevant, et al., 1986)
Important to encourage adolescents to explore a wide variety of options in their vocational identity decision making.

Question 34

Explain The Family and Identity Development

Answer 34

Adolescents in families that encourage individuality and connectedness are more likely to explore various identity alternatives prior to commitment
Adolescents in families that discourage individuation are less likely to explore identity alternatives
Adolescents with high levels of ego development came from families where there was respectful sharing of perspectives
Not possible to determine the direction of cause. Adolescents in different identity status may evoke different parental behaviours or parenting styles

Adolescents with positive affect towards parents report higher levels of self-esteem and better coping
Attachment style, secure attachment associated with identity achievement individuals. A type of family interaction style that encourages individuality within a supportive context
Insecure attachment style associated with diffuse identity

-what should replace parents is a sense of self or independence in the child so that individuality is not crushed

Question 35

Explain Friendships and the Peer Group

Answer 35

During mid-adolescence, youths begin to move away from parental control and become more intensely involved with friends and peers
Parents do continue to make significant contributions to their adolescent’s development
Feedback from friendships and the peer groups provides youth support. In addition, youth get feedback from their peers as one tries in different personalities and different behaviors

Friendships and peer groups provide mid-adolescents with:
Confidants
Experiences of closeness with both same and opposite sex companions
One’s sexual and sex-role identity
Mutually identified best friends have shown similarities in terms of identity status (as well as many behaviors and attitudes)
Persistent conflict with friends has been associated with detrimental identity changes over mid-adolescents

Question 36

Explain School Structure and Identity Formation

Answer 36

Research examining the role school plays in identity development is lacking
Researchers primarily have focused on family and peers
Mid-adolescent girls attending state schools more likely to be moratorium or diffuse in (more of a group think- and less people with different backgrounds) political decision making and achieved or moratorium occupational directions.
A significantly greater proportion of private school girls were foreclosed in identity defining decisions( Roker & Banks, 1993). WHY?
According to Dryer, highschool curriculum should promote student “exploration, responsible choice, and self-determination.”

Question 37

How does a sense of ego identity begin to form?

Answer 37

Experiences in a broad range of social contexts, from the family to the peer group, from the school to broader community agencies, that provide opportunities for the exploration of genuinely meaningful values, roles, and life goals are most likely to facilitate the identity formation process.

Question 38

How does vocational identity development occur?

Answer 38

Ginzberg suggests vocational identity occurs through fantasy, tentative, and realistic stages in considering vocational directions. Mid-adolescents are most likely engaged in tentative and realistic explorations of future vocational roles.

Question 39

In what way does community service impact on ideological identity formation during mid-adolescence?

Answer 39

High school students taking part in community service programs have developed higher levels of political-social awareness than nonparticipants. Volunteerism during high school is linked with opportunities for identity clarification as well as a broader foundation for establishing meaningful directions to one’s life.

Question 40

Explain the process/ elements of Late Adolescence

Answer 40

Define late adolescence —from age 18 to 22 years
During this period are likely to actualize many identity-defining decisions
Finding a vocational path
Finding an intimate relationship with a partner,
Forming new ways of relating to one’s family of origin
Developing a set of meaningful values that will at least carry them into early adult life are among the many psychosocial tasks of late adolescence

Question 41

Intersection of Biological, Psychological, and Societal Influences on Identity in Late Adolescence: Overview

Answer 41

New responsibilities
By late teen’s one’s physical sense of identity stabilizes
aware of the strengths and limitations of their physical features and abilities, what can be changed and what must be accepted
Expression of sexuality and gender roles
Preparation to enter the adult world
Establishment of new close relationship

Question 42

Late Adolescence Biological Processes

Answer 42

By late adolescence sexual maturation has generally been completed by most
Observable changes in height generally stop for women by about age 18 and for men by about age 20
Body assumed adult contours and proportions

Question 43

Late Adolescence Biological Issues

Answer 43

Late adolescence is one of the healthiest phases of the life span, (i.e., relatively few incidences of chronic illnesses, hospital stays, and fewer days at home sick in bed) compared with other life stages
However, depression, asthma, and skeletal disorders (e.g., arthritis) do affect 1 in 5 adolescent

Question 44

Late Adolescence Psychological Issues

Answer 44

Two of the most important identity-related psychological developments of late adolescence are:
Second Separation-Individuation process
The capacity for new forms of Intimacy
These two developments are closely related dimensions of psychological functions

Second Separation-Individuation Process of Late Adolescence
Capacity to assume increasing responsibility – responsible for matters that were once handled by others
The separation-individuation process of late adolescence involves - development of a more autonomous sense of self
Forming of relationships with others, including one’s parents.
Becoming more capable of evaluating, deciding, and taking responsibility for issues in their own lives, on their own terms.
Not all cultures encourage this process among late adolescents, but Western cultures generally do (Marcia, 1993)

Psychological Issues
Erikson (1963) described the psychosocial task of Intimacy vs. Isolation as primarily a task of young adulthood – one’s capacity for different types of intimacy is related to one’s resolution of identity issues
Intimacy versus Isolation: forming close relationships with other (i.e., intimate friendships)
Intimacy often associated with a sexual relationship
Intimacy during late adolescence includes both close friendships and romantic involvements

Question 45

Explain Late Adolescence Intimacy

Answer 45

Intimacy defined: “the intersection of two identities.… In a truly intimate relationship, each partner preserves a sense of separateness and has the ability to retain his or her unique qualities” (Whitbourne, 2005, p. 45).
If one’s sense of identity is not attainted – closeness with another brings the treat that one’s own identity will dissolve or be lost, relationships many be more superficial or distant

Question 46

Explain Late Adolescence Societal Influences

Answer 46

Society plays a critical role in the identity-formation process of late adolescence, a time that broader social institutions prepare to receive and confirm (or not) the late adolescent as a member of a larger collective order.
Feeling of actually belonging to a community actively confirms one’s own sense of identity.
For late adolescents, the transition from the established norms and social networks (e.g., structured school) since earliest childhood, to a frameless, post school world of unknown futures with multiple possibilities is a daunting one
Findings a place in the broader social arena where “I can feel comfortable and confirmed” is a difficult task

Individuals must find satisfaction of their own biological and psychological needs within some context, and so people modify their identities according to what will best help them live in a particular context. How does one modify their identities (e.g., change clothes for work setting)
Different societies and cultures demand different forms of adaptation on the part of the individual

Question 47

What is the Separation-Individuation Process
explain each stage

Answer 47

First 3 years of life: Development of independent sense of self
Adolescence: Second separation-individuation process

Margaret Mahler (1897-1985)
Mahler conducted a series of videotaped observations of infants and their mothers in interaction to chart how an independent sense of self develops through the first three years of life.

Autistic state (birth to 1 month): the infant has little awareness of boundaries between self and the outside world. Baby is primarily concerned with its own needs such as hunger and sleep

Symbiosis (1 month to 5 months): the primary caretaker is perceived merely as an extension of the infant’s self. Infant responds more to outside stimuli

From this base that four subphases of separation- individuation evolve

Separation-Individuation Process : 4 Substages
Differentiation (5-10 months): begins to experience the primary caretaker and others as separate from the self. Child tentatively begins to explore the world while at the same time remaining in close proximity to the primary caretaker. Mahler term – the baby having “hatched”
interest in the outside world

Separation-Individuation Process : 4 Substages
2. Practicing subphase (10-15 months): a time of increased exploration occurs. As long as the trusted caretaker remains in close proximity, the child’s explorations of the world generally are very active.
3. Rapprochement (15 months to 24 months): realizing that the child needs the mother and seeks independence

“The recognition that “I am separate from my main caretaker and am not omnipotent” creates a great sense of loss, and seemingly regressive attempts to reinvolve the primary caretaker in previous symbiotic roles often follow.”

Separation-Individuation Process: 4 Substages
4. Object Constancy (24-30 months): child will attain a sense of physical self and the ability to retain an image of the main caretaker – child functional in the caretaker’s absence. Child holds and able to recall a positive image of the mother.

The Second Separation-Individuation Process and Identity Formation
Adolescence involves a second separation-individuation process
“One important infant outcome of separation individuation is the ability to internalize (or carry within oneself) an image of the main caretaker”
“An important outcome of the second separation-individuation process of adolescence is to relinquish the power held by this internalized representation. In this way, one is able to function more autonomously.”

Separation-Individuation Process and Identity Formation
“Late adolescents in the foreclosure identity status appear to have an intrapsychic organization wherein the representation of self and primary caretaker is not differentiated but rather fused in a symbiotic relationship”
Research suggests identity achieved adolescents, greater sense of self and greater security in attachment patters

Question 48

What are the types of Intimacy Status

Answer 48

Intimate
Preintimate
Pseudointimate
Stereotypic
Isolate
Merger (committed)
Merger (uncommited)

Question 49

Explain each type of Intimacy Status

Answer 49

Intimate: has made a commitment to a partner - characterized by a high degree of depth and mutuality, openness and caring. Conflict resolved in constructive ways and sexuality comfortably expressed

Preintimate: has the likelihood of achieving an intimacy, but does not yet have a long-term committed partnership involving a sexual relationship. Friendships are characterized by many qualities expressive of intimacy (ability to communicate and take equal role in decision making)

Pseudointimate: established a long-term, sexual commitment to a partner but who relationship is superficial (i.e., lacking open communication and deep emotional involvement). Personal concerns are not shared.

Stereotypic: has friends and dating relationships but not established a long term sexual relationship. Friendships are superficial (i.e., lacking open communication and deep emotional involvement). Emphasis is on what can be obtained from others

Isolate: no close relationships with peers. Relationships with acquaintances are more formal and stereotyped. Withdrawn and often lacks social skills.

Merger (committed): has established a long-term, sexual relationship with a partner but characterized by enmeshment, dependency, and unrealistic persecutions of others. Gains a sense of self through the relationship, difficult to pursue interests apart from friends or the partner

Merger (uncommitted): has NOT established a long-term, sexual relationship with a partner. But friendships are characterized by enmeshment and dependency. Gains a sense of self through the relationship, difficult to pursue interests apart from friends.

Question 50

Adult Attachment and Intimacy Paper results

Answer 50

Arseth et al., (2009) examined adult attachment and intimacy in 100 female university students (M=22.9, SD=2.5).
Participants completed the Intimacy Status Interview (Orlofsky, 1993) and the Relationship questionnaire (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991)
Arseth et al., (2009) hypothesized that intimate women (intimate/preintimate) to score significantly lower on insecure attachment dimensions when compared to pseudointimate, merger and isolate women

Arseth et al., (2009) found Intimates had higher scores on the secure attachment dimension compared to pseudointimates. Intimates also scored lower on fearful attachment dimension when compared to when compared to pseudointimates and mergers.

Question 51

Late Adolescence Identity and Intimacy

Answer 51

Those more advanced in identity statuses have also generally been more advanced in terms of their intimacy status development. Greater intimacy so associated with more committed beliefs and less self-consciousness
Understanding the relationship between identity and intimacy development in late adolescence is complex.

Question 52

Explain Friendships and Late Adolescence

Answer 52

Shifting focus from how adolescent peer relationships help adolescents disengage from parents to a focus on the transformation of attachment bonds that takes place with various members of the adolescent’s social groups
Late adolescents renegotiate old forms of attachment bonds with peers and develop new forms of closeness (Cooper, 1994; Rice & Mulkeen, 1995).
Identity should not be defined solely in terms of autonomy and self-reliance, but also in term of being able to maintain a distinctive sense of self while remaining close to others (Cooper, 1994).

Question 53

How do connections with the peer group change over the years of adolescence, and what function does the peer group have for late adolescents undergoing the identity-formation process?

Answer 53

Function of the peer group changes for individuals during late adolescents

Peer relationships increase in importance and level of intimacy over the course of adolescence (Cooper & Cooper, 1992).

Studies have found that closeness with friends of the same gender grows stronger as youth get older

Over the course of adolescence, the importance of membership in a particular clique or crowd disappears as late adolescents move into paired relationships.

For early adolescents: crowds offer reassurance in their demand for conformity
For late adolescents: crowds frustrate late - desire to express their own attitudes and interests.

Question 54

Late Adolescence Educational and Work Settings

Answer 54

Different university departments do attract students of differing identity statuses

Research finds differences in identity-status distributions across university faculties, those who were identity-achieved predominating in law and the arts and those foreclosed individuals more numerous in economics and medicine.

Employed youth: made early educational decisions to attend a trade school for their vocational qualifications, generally spent little time exploring vocational and relational life options prior to forming commitments.
University students: actively exploring not only vocational but also ideological, relationship, and lifestyle issues

Unemployed youth: with a broader educational background were often taking time out to consider their futures and engage in a moratorium process

Unemployed youth: with narrower educational backgrounds were primarily foreclosed or diffuse in identity.

All groups of youths indicated work to be of primary importance to their sense of identity (Danielsen et al., 2000).

Motivation also linked to exploration processes and commitment processes (Kindelberger et al.,, 2019)

Question 55

How does one’s identity develop over late adolescence?

Answer 55

Intrapsychic changes of the second individuation process of adolescence enable youths to relinquish the power of internalized parents and begin more autonomous decision making regarding issues of personal identity.

Question 56

What is the relationship of identity to intimacy development in late adolescence?

Answer 56

Erikson believes identity issues must be resolved before more mature forms of intimacy can develop. Some research suggests, however, that identity and intimacy may co-develop for women.

Question 57

Do men and women differ in the types of identity-related values they hold?

Answer 57

Women may be more concerned about issues of care than justice in considering moral dilemmas.

Question 58

Explain Identity and Ethnicity

Answer 58

Ethnic identity is not often a key identity quest among Caucasian North American adolescents - home values are generally similar to mainstream values for these adolescents
For many adolescents of ethnic minorities, ethnic identity concerns become central to the identity formation process
Ethnic identity may play a larger role among minority youth as they experience the dominant culture of the majority group. Research finds differences in identity exploration when comparing Caucasian majority group and minority groups

Question 59

How does a sense of ethnic identity emerge?

Answer 59

According to Erikson (1964) “true identity depends on the support that the young receive from the collective sense of identity characterizing the social groups significant to [them]: [their] class, [their] nation, [their] culture” (p. 93)

Being a member of a particular ethnic group holds important identity implications. Young children aware of differences in ethnicity and culture

During adolescence – (with capabilities for reflecting) that one may develop a greater interest in one’s own ethic background. During adolescence – one has wider experiences within multicultural groups and experience ethic discrimination

According to Phinney and Rosenthal (1992) “growing up as a member of an ethnic minority group within a larger, mainstream culture additionally complicates the identity-formation process by providing alternative role models for identification to adolescents” p. 127
Maybe conflicting values between the minority group and mainstream cultures. Minority group adolescent may have to choose in the identity-formation process.

Question 60

Explain Ethnic Identity and Developmental Theories and the stages

Answer 60

Ethnic Identity: An enduring and basic sense of oneself that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, coupled with attitudes and feelings of individuals in that ethnic group (Phinney, 1996)

Theories regarding ethnic identity-formation processes
Cross’s Racial Identity Development Model
Phinney’s Stage Model of Ethnic Identity

Pre-encounter: at this point, individuals are aware of the differences between themselves and the dominant culture. These differences are not considered to be important. Why?

Encounter: Adolescents come to experience discrimination, leading to greater awareness of the cultural values present within their own ethnic group. At this time likely to reject values of the dominant culture and strongly uphold those of their own ethnic group.

Note: Cross argued that his model refers to identity statues not stages

Immersion: Youth strongly identify with values of their own ethnic group and may become politically active and reject the dominant society. May search for information about racial identity from peers. May come to feel discontent with the rigidity of the initial immersion process and no longer find it necessary to reject everything from the dominant culture.

Internalization: new recognitions emerge, and one comes to appreciate a secure sense of racial identity – integrating their personal and cultural identities. Although one still retains a sense of one’s ethnic origins, a general attitude of tolerance and consideration of all people is present.

Question 61

Explain Phinney Stage Model of Ethic Identity Development

Answer 61

Phinney (1989, 1996) proposed a three -stage model of ethnic identity development, based on Marcia’s ego identity status framework. Stages not based on ages, can occur during early-late adolescence

Stage 1: Unexamined ethnic identity: youth does not consider meaning of ethnic identity (corresponds to diffuse/foreclosed)

Stage 2: Ethnic identity search: search for meaning of their ethnicity – involves examining ethnic group (corresponds to moratorium)

Stage 3: Achieved ethnic identity: after a period of exploration individual feels sense of ethnic identity (corresponds to achieved identity statuses)

Stages of ethnic identity development have correlated positively with measures of ego identity-status development.
According to Phinney (2003) many contemporary adolescents of ethnic minority groups find resolution to questions of their ethnicity by adopting a bicultural identity.

Question 62

Explain Biracial and Multiracial Identity Development Model

Answer 62

.Personal Identity: young children sense of self independent of their ethnic background. Identity based on self-esteem, sense of self-worth developed in the family

Choice of Group Characterization: an individual pushed to choose an identity. Can be a time of crisis. Many factors impact choice:
status factor (i.e., group status of parents’ ethnic background),
social support factors (i.e., parental style and influence, acceptance and participation in cultures of various groups),
personal factors (i.e., physical appearance, cultural knowledge, and personality differences)

Enmeshment/Denial: confusion and guilt at having to choose one identity – that does not fully expressive of one’s background can lead to feelings of “anger, shame, and self-hatred”. Resolution of guilt needed to move to next stage.

Appreciation: individual begins to appreciate their multiple identity and broadening of one’s racial/ethnic group membership. Individuals may choose to identify with one group more than others

Integration: Individual experiences wholeness and integration. Recognition and appreciation of all racial and ethnic identities and develops a secure and integrated identity

Question 63

Explain Ethnic Identity and Self-Esteem

Answer 63

Self-esteem, among minority group students related to the degree of exploration and commitment around issues regarding their ethnicity
Those who extensively explored their ethnic identity and then made a commitment in relation to their sense of ethnic identity had higher levels of self-esteem.
These finding point to the importance of ethnic identity

Question 64

Explain Discrimination and Well-Being

Answer 64

Many studies have found a link between perceptions of discrimination and well-being (see Schmitt et al., 2014 meta-analysis)
Pascoe and Smart Richman (2009) meta-analysis found negative correlation between perceived discrimination and psychological and physical health. Findings possibly linked to stress and unhealthy behaviours
Degree Discrimination appraised as pervasive (i.e., discrimination is systemic, occurs more frequently and unavoidable) is likely to have increased negative effects on well-being compared to discrimination that is isolated (Schmitt et al., 2014)

Question 65

Explain Attributions to Prejudice & Minority Group Identification

Answer 65

Experiences of discrimination linked to self-concept and self-esteem. Stigma hypothesis: internalization of the stigma (minority status) leads to lower self-concept in minority groups
According to Branscombe et al., (1999) attributions of prejudice – negative experiences with the majority group can increase group identification because people desire to feel that they belong
Experiences of discrimination can negatively impact well-being (feeling rejected) BUT can lead to increased identification with own devalued group and this preserves a sense of belonging and maintains self-esteem (Tabbah et al., 2016).
-The Rejection – Identification Model

Question 66

The Rejection-Identification model (Branscombe, Schmitt, & Harvey, 1999)

Answer 66

Perceived discrimination and/or experiences of discrimination may lead to increased in-group identification
The increased group identification helps maintain psychological well-being (preserve self-esteem) when a minority group is being devalued
Branscombe et al., 1999 found an association between self-perceived discrimination and increased ethnic identity among African Americans
Discrimination can negatively affect well-being, but this can be counteracted through increased ethnic identification (Tabbah et al., 2016) .

Question 67

Explain Identity and Adoption

Answer 67

A number of factors may impact the identity-formation process for adolescent adoptees.
The type of adoption procedure itself that was used in becoming a member of an adoptive family (e.g., closed adoption)
The degree of openness children receive about their birth parents

Question 68

Explain Identity and Adoption

Answer 68

A number of factors may impact the identity-formation process for adolescent adoptees.
The type of adoption procedure itself that was used in becoming a member of an adoptive family (e.g., closed adoption)
The degree of openness children receive about their birth parents

Question 69

Explain Adoption Procedures

Answer 69

Research finds that the most positive outcomes for adopted children and adolescents when their adoptive parents provide them with information about their birth parents
Provide adoptees with a sense of continuity in their life histories. For Erikson important for identity formation
Also give the child a greater understanding of the reasons for his or her adoption – possibly alleviating potential feelings of rejection

Question 70

Explain the effects of adoption and Identity-Formation

Answer 70

“It may be that adolescents who lack information about their personal birth histories find the adolescent identity-formation process far lengthier and more complex than those non-adopted or adopted youth who have such knowledge of their personal birth histories”

Question 71

Explain Adoption and Adolescence

Answer 71

Adolescent period: more sophisticated cognitive capacities to think about the meaning of adoption
One-quarter of adolescents who were adopted as infants said that adoption was a big part of how they though of themselves
Nearly half of adopted adolescents reported thinking about their adoption 2 or 3 times per month or as frequently as daily (Benson et al., 1994)
Adolescents who were extremely preoccupied with their adoptive status report higher levels of alienation and lower levels of trust for both mother and father when compared to adolescents with extremely low levels of preoccupation about their adoptive status

Question 72

What do Emerging Adult Adoptees Want to Know About their Birth Parents? (Wrobel and Grotevant, 2019) outcomes

Answer 72

Adoptive status alone is not associated with positive or negative identity resolutions among adolescents.
Other factors important: such as ease and style of communication within the adoptive family and personality, and contextual factors seem to play key roles in the identify formation process
Higher degrees of compatibility (as reported by parents) maintained over time associated with higher social competence and attachment, and lower levels of problem behavior among the adopted adolescents
Family function an extremely important variable

Question 73

Explain Visible Adoptions

Answer 73

Adoptions across ethnic groups
Invisible adoptions are those in which the ethnic origin of the child matches that of at least one of the adoptive parents
1/3 of young people take an active interest in their ethnic origins. Families of these youth often uninterested in their child’s ethic origin
Adoptee often felt a lower sense of self-esteem regarding their physical appearance
An interest by the adoptive parents in their child’s ethic origin seems to diminish the adoptee’s interests in questions regarding his or her ethnicity (Irhammar, 1997)

Question 74

Explain Searching for biological origins

Answer 74

Which adolescents search for their biological parents and which do not?
Those who experience some openness in the adoption, were least satisfied with that adoptive openness and were most preoccupied with their adoptive status.
Desire to search - not related to family functioning or adolescent problem behavior.
These issues may change as new Laws enable contact

Question 75

How does knowledge of one’s adoption impact identity?

Answer 75

Providing children and adolescents with information about their birth parents does not have negative consequences for their identity development. Other factors such as the ease and style of family communication and personality factors of parents who have adopted are more important to adolescent identity formation than knowledge of one’s adoptive status alone.

Question 76

Does immigration change one’s sense of identity?

Answer 76

Optimal identity formation among adolescents who have immigrated involves developing a sense of personal identity that integrates elements from ones identifications and experiences in different cultural settings. So yes, immigration does require changes in one’s sense of identity.

Question 77

Is a sense of ethnic identity critical to one’s ego identity?

Answer 77

For many adolescent members of an ethnic minority group who live within a larger, mainstream culture, integrating a sense of ethnic identity within one’s sense of ego identity is a critical task. Ethnic identity has been positively linked with self-esteem.

Question 78

What is Intersectionality?

Answer 78

Based on the work of Kimberley Crenshaw (1989)
Emphasized that marginalization involves systematic inequality and interlocking systems of oppression
There are multiple systems of oppression that can intersect (e.g., legal system, labor market, etc.)
Oppression and marginalization are experienced at intersections
Focusing solely on a single domain (e.g., only race) is limited

Question 79

Meeus & Crocetti’s 3-dimensional Model

Answer 79

Commitment: Strong choices adolescents have made throughout different developmental domains & the self-confidence they have from making these choices
In-depth Exploration: The way adolescents actively explore the commitments they have made. Reflect on their choices, search for information about their commitments, & discuss these commitments with others
Reconsideration of Commitment: Willingness to discard current commitments and search for new commitments. Comparing current commitments with other possibilities

In- depth Exploration
Previously found to be positively connected with adaptive psychosocial characteristics (positive personality traits, civic engagement, academic adjustment) but also with maladaptive psychosocial aspects (depressive symptoms, anxiety, problematic child-parent relationships)
Commitment
Strong indicator of positive identity development. Predicts social adjustment and helps alleviate negative emotions and behaviours.
Revising Commitment
‘Identity Crisis’. Correlated with depressive symptoms, delinquency, poor relationships, poor well-being and self-image

Question 80

Self-Efficacy versus Agency

Answer 80

Recall self-efficacy - is a person’s sense of being able to meet situational demands and/or being able to deal with a particular situation
Agency: is the ability to coordinate cognitive capacities, motivation, and emotions to achieve a desired goal
Self-efficacy affects agency and impacts decision making

Question 81

Social Cognitive Theory

Answer 81

Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the cognitive processes involved with observation and imitation
Reciprocal Determinism:
A person’s behaviour is influenced by personal factors and their social environment
People possess characteristics (e.g., self-efficacy and agency) that lead them to seek particular kinds of interactions with the external world and these interactions shape development

Question 82

Agency in Adolescence

Answer 82

Adolescents are working on becoming self-sufficient agents
Self-efficacy is strengthened by experiencing successes in several different domains (e.g., school)
Agency closely relates to identity formation
Positively relates to identity achievement
Negatively relates to identity diffusion

Question 83

Music, Agency, and Self-Efficacy

Answer 83

Informal learning occurs in everyday life when listening to music
Listening to music allows the individual to reflect, create memories and narratives, as well as patterns and meanings
Music has been found to have a social aspect and empower individuals
Music helps teens identify with others who like the same type of music, this gives them a sense of belonging and identity

Fostering Agency Through Music
Research has found music can help to reduce distress and promote development
Three main musical experiences that can enhance the self
Induction of empathy
Promotion of social cohesion
Pleasure
Positive musical experiences provide a sense of control, and this promotes positive self-evaluation

Question 83

Music, Agency, and Self-Efficacy

Answer 83

Informal learning occurs in everyday life when listening to music
Listening to music allows the individual to reflect, create memories and narratives, as well as patterns and meanings
Music has been found to have a social aspect and empower individuals
Music helps teens identify with others who like the same type of music, this gives them a sense of belonging and identity

Fostering Agency Through Music
Research has found music can help to reduce distress and promote development
Three main musical experiences that can enhance the self
Induction of empathy
Promotion of social cohesion
Pleasure
Positive musical experiences provide a sense of control, and this promotes positive self-evaluation