CHYS -1000 pt2

Question 1

How are children affected by family life?

Answer 1

• Examine children’s relationships with parents and siblings
• Address issues of power, control, agency, and resistance in relation to time and space in family life.
• Children often experience family life from a position of powerlessness, but there are opportunities for agency and resistance in everyday family life

Question 2

How are childer from non-western places affected by family life?

Answer 2

• Not all children live within a Westernized, nuclear family structure (e.g. parent(s) and dependents)
• E.g., Parts of Africa seriously affected by the AIDS epidemic.
• Many children have taken on household head role, because parents have died or too sick to manage the household.
• Concern about child-headed households (CHH) positions:
• Children too responsible (children are meant to be dependent, not responsible)
• Vulnerable victims in need of social intervention.
• People from western society viewed these children as victims- the children didn’t feel that way they wanted to help the family

Question 3

What does CHH mean?

Answer 3

child-headed households

Question 4

What was Payne’s (2012) Study about?

Answer 4

• Payne (2012) Article: Extraordinary survivors’ or ‘ordinary lives’? Embracing ‘everyday agency’ in social interventions with child-headed households in Zambia
• Payne explored the daily life in CHHs, from the vantage point of those living in them. Conducted the research with CHHs in rural urban Zambia between 2004 and 2008.
• Qualitative and ethnographic study
• “Everyday agency”: refers to the expressions of agency perceived by children and young people to be part of their everyday life

Question 5

What did Payne think was important to acknowledge?

Answer 5

1) young people’s roles and responsibilities as household heads as equally important and
2) also recognize these children need protection
* Important to gain an understanding of children’s own perspective of their lives

Question 6

What was the result of the Payne CHH study?

Answer 6

• Ethnographic study found CHHs are positive about their responsibilities and the challenges they face
• Proud to contribute to family’s wellbeing
• Can be difficult when not CHH. E.g. One young woman cared for family members since 12 years old and helped with family income. Mother was an alcoholic
• She found it difficult to give up her responsibilities on when her mother was able to resume her place as head of the family.
• Difficult to return to being ‘a child.’
• CHHs see their responsibilities as part of their everyday lives – do not feel it makes them vulnerable (Payne, 2012).
• “Social interventions must embrace ‘everyday agency’ and start with children and young people’s own perspectives (Payne, 2012, p.439)”

Question 7

How do children view family ?

Answer 7

Children’s views of family composition findings:
* Who makes up a family – matters less to children than an atmosphere of love, caring, and support.
* Being loved and cared for takes precedence over blood ties, co-residence, or legal status

Question 8

What are Children’s Views on Family life during Family Transitions?

Answer 8

• Views during transitions (e.g., parental separation and divorce).
• Family changes often out of children’s control. Children feel that they should have a say in family decisions.
• Should be focused on the children in the family rather than the adults.
• Important to continue to be loved and cared for - more important than the form their family takes (Pryor and Emery, 2004).
• Children experience multiple family forms – reject the concept of a ‘proper family’
• Wade and Smart (2002) examined the strategies and resources children use during times of family change - i.e., parents separated

Question 9

What are the four types of families categorized by Wade & Smart (2002)

Answer 9

• Aggregated families
• Divorced families
• Meshed families
• Diasporic families

Question 10

Define the different types of families
Aggregated families, Divorced families , Meshed families, Diasporic families

Answer 10

• Aggregated families: experienced several complex changes, several parents attached to various children within the family
• Divorced families: characterized by small family size, and cooperation between parents post-separation
• Meshed families: extended family is important and children in these families are ‘emotionally literate’ as emotions are not suppressed
• Diasporic families: a parent has returned to the home country or where the extended family is dispersed

Question 11

What were Wade and Smart (2002) Findings?

Answer 11

• No one family form of childhood that could be made to fit all the children/families. Important to see the complexities of children’s lived realities in terms of family.
• What matters most to children is the quality of the relationships rather than biological connections within whatever family form they live in.
• Children used two main coping strategies at times of family change: diversion and emotional expression.

Question 12

Define the coping strategies at times of family change: diversion and emotional expression that children use?

Answer 12

• Diversion: want to forget about what happened
• Want to sleep – felt better when they woke up
• Emotional Expression: showed emotions such as anger. Some talked to their friends, but others didn’t trust other children. Didn’t want to talk to teachers - felt that teachers didn’t listen. Children wanted kindness and a choice as to whether or not they would speak with the professionals working with the separating family.

Question 13

What were children’s views of being parented?

Answer 13

• British study, children indicated that they wanted to be loved and cared for, listened to, and taken seriously by their parents.
• 71 % of 11-year-olds actually felt loved and cared for by their parents, and this declined with age
• The older the children got, the less likely they were to report feeling loved and supported.
  -Being listened to and Taken Seriously

Question 14

What are children’s perspectives on family time?

Answer 14

• Family Day in Ontario. Holiday for families to spend more quality time together.
• Children perspective - Do not need quality time, but instead, ordinary time with parents (e.g., eating meals and watching TV together).

Question 15

Parental control of children’s time

Answer 15

Parental control: Children’s Time is Subject to Control
* In everyday family life, struggles over resources and time
Children’s time is subject to control:
* Parents decide children’s chores, sleep times, play times, homework times
* Parents have the power to interrupt children’s activities with requests and demands

Question 16

How can children be in control of their time?

Answer 16

• Christensen’s (2002) examined children’s strategies of resistance. Children resist by not immediately doing what parents asked – comply with demands ‘after a few minutes.’
• Montandon (2001) found that children employed a range of strategies to resist parental control:
• “Wearing down’ parents”
• Negotiating - arguing and bargaining.
• Although subject to parents’ demands, children did not see themselves as ‘defeated’ by parents. Children view themselves as full participants in the family setting

Question 17

How do Parents Control Indoor and Outdoor Space?

Answer 17

• Children deal with spatial restrictions within the family.
• Increasing parental fear of ‘stranger danger.’ keeps children indoors. Limiting and controlling children’s access to outdoor space.
• Opposite beliefs: the outdoors is the perfect space for children and a dangerous place for children.
• Children, aware of potential dangers in public, see themselves as experts in their own lives, and feel that their personal safety is not the responsibility of their parent (Valentine, 1997b: 78). * One strategy to negotiate access to public space: Not telling parents about risky situations, so parents don’t worry. Children don’t want their freedom curtailed.
• Children do not simply passively accept parental restrictions
• Children see themselves as competent to deal with the dangers of their neighbourhoods.
• ‘Stranger-danger’ fear amongst parents is limiting children’s outdoor play (Holt et al., 2015)

Question 18

“Five reasons why kids need risk, fear and excitement in play” by Dr. M. Brussoni

Answer 18

1. Will be more physically active and less sedentary
2. Develop resilience, self-confidence and risk management skills
3. Do better in school
4. Children are more capable than we give them credit for
5. Safer time to be a kid in Canada. Death due to injury at an all-time low

Question 19

Payne’s (2012) work investigated child-headed households in Africa. According to Payne (2012) it is important for individuals involved
in developing policies and intervention programs aimed at supporting child-headed households to acknowledge:
a) these roles and responsibilities are important and demonstrate children’s competencies
b) that these children need protection
c) that legislation making the role of child-headed households illegal is urgently needed
d) All of the above
e) Both A and B

Answer 19

e) Both A and B

Question 20

Bessel (2011) carried out research with child workers in Indonesia and found that:
a) Some children were expected by their families to work, but poverty was the main reason children worked
b) Most children worked as their families expected them to work after the age of 9
c) Female child workers did not demonstrated agency in relation to the work they did
d) All of the above

Answer 20

b) Most children worked as their families expected them to work after the age of 9

Question 21

What is birth order theory?

Answer 21

• Sulloway (1996) birth-order effects theory: firstborns are more dominant and less agreeable. Laterborns are more extraverted and sociable.
• Some found firstborns rated more conscientious whereas laterborns were more rebellious (Paulhus et al., 1999)
• Boccio and Beaver (2019) results did not suggest a strong link between birth order and the development of personality

Question 22

What were the sibling relation outome ?

Answer 22

• Social geographer Samantha Punch - children’s perspectives on family relationships, specifically sibling relations.
• Her research shows children, as competent social actors, negotiate and interact in the sibling relationship.
• Time and space – affects relationships
  Siblings strategies – Bride or “Barter” with each other

Sibling Relations: Age, Power, and Negotiation
Findings:
- Felt siblings were “always there.” Hard to get away from. They didn’t extend as much effort as with friends

Question 23

Why were Child siblings negative interactions?

Answer 23

• Shared history, Permanence of the sibling bond, Lack of privacy and control of space in the home and the obligation of living together.’
• Physical proximity does not always relate to feelings of closeness among siblings (e.g., Twin study)

Question 24

What were twin siblings relationships like?

Answer 24

• Feelings of always there: shared bedroom, toys, clothing.
• Some employ strategies to “feel alone”
• Some use strategies to put distance between themselves and their twin – e.g., dressing differently, preferring different music
• Even if siblings dislike each other– often protect siblings at school if sibling bullied.

Question 25

What are Birth Order & Negotiations like?

Answer 25

• Found children commonly used bribery: making deals - to get their siblings to do things for them.
• Advantages of being older –better negotiating tactics compared to younger siblings
• Younger siblings- might get special treatment (because of their smallness)
• Children – as competent social actors – negotiate and redefine their relations with siblings.
• Punch and McIntosh’s (2009): social structure of age and birth order is not fixed, but is dynamic and fluid

Question 26

What did James (2013) discover examing socialization theory?

Answer 26

1. Like adults, children have personal lives and are able to reflect on them
2. Children’s lives are lived in interaction with others
3. Children’s life experiences are embodied and emotional
4. Children experience the structures and institutions of the world through diverse interactions
5. Children’s personal lives are biographical (pg. 104 of the text)

Question 27

What is the purpose of school?

Answer 27

• Providing specific forms of education
• Containing children in educational institutions
• Children viewed as becoming –(i.e., ignorant becomings), in need moral, mental and physical discipline
• Children need to be reshaped to become productive citizens – citizens that fit the requirements of society

Question 28

How did school affect children during covid -19?

Answer 28

• Some children (most vulnerable) due to socioeconomic disadvantages and/or disabilities children, rely on school for:
  o Educational needs
  o Nutritional Needs
  o Health Needs
• Lack of parental support at home and/or inequalities in the access to digital learning resources
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) launched the Global Education Coalition
• Aim is to support students through remote learning

Question 29

What is the purpose of school more than knowledge acquisition

Answer 29

Socializing needs are fulfilled by school
Physical space to share ”hopes, and emotions among peers” (p.370)
Social and emotional learning is important:
o Social skills
o Self-confidence
o Empathy
o Participation
o Compassion
o Respect

Question 30

How is Power, control, and discipline in schools displayed ?

Answer 30

1. Discipline through the control of space
2. Discipline through the control of the child’s body cont’d
3. Time in School Controlled

Question 31

Define Discipline through the control of space, Discipline through the control of the child’s body cont’d, Time in School Controlled

Answer 31

Discipline through the control of space
* Spatial arrangement clearly defines child spaces and adult spaces.
* Space as a form of control.
* Classroom set up emphasizes the hierarchical system within the school institution (Devine, 2002: 311).
* Children’s desk configuration: rows of desk – children clearly see the teacher and teacher can see all of the children
* Movement throughout the school regulated by adults – to protect the children – also ensures that adults have an eye on the children

Discipline through the control of the child’s body
* Move from being under the influence of parents to a new environment – child’s individual requests and routine less important at school
* Children learn the classroom expectations – what is expected of a pupil
* Sending students mixed messages: Be independent BUT conform to the rules and norms of the school-struggle between both
* Christensen et al. (2001: 213) argues that teachers tend to see children as mature when they conform to the rules of the school
* Children expected to control their bodies
* Children are seen at risk and at the same time a risk to their peers
* In some countries, teachers can use corporal punishment
* In Canada, teachers cannot use physical punishment
* Children must follow a timetable. Instructed on how and when to move between classes
* Simpson (2000) children used resistance using their bodies, bodily functions, and bodily waste. Small acts of defiance. E.g., Boys belched, broke wind, spit, and made noises with their bodies.
* Girls expressed their resistance by disobeying the rules of the dress code. For example, boring lesson, girls swapped shoes under their desks until each girl was wearing an unmatched pair of shoes.
* Children resisted the rules imposed

Time in school is controlled
* The timetable is enforced and children’s daily activities are structured
* It is obvious to teachers and staff when children are not where they are supposed to be
* Adults control all aspects of children’s daily experience and can punish children by controlling time, for example, keep children in during recess.
* Teacher can control “home time” assigning work to be completed at home. Parent then control children’s time to ensure homework is completed (Christensen and James, 2001)

• Research finds time goes by quickly for children (participants were 10 and 11 years old when:
• Interested in the lesson
• Could work with their friends,
• Liked the teacher that was instructing the lesson
• When none of the above were present children indicted that time passed slowly
• Being with friends - liked best about school and found being educated ‘boring’ (Christensen and James, 2001).
• Children aware that they had very little control over:
• How time was spent,
• who they could sit with,
• Their clothing,
• Eating times and work times
• Children saw themselves as powerless in school (Christensen and James, 2001: 79–

Question 32

How is children’s school experience structured?

Answer 32

• Children’s school experience structured by culture, race, and ethnicity

Question 33

How were Roma Children and Hungarian Education System treated?

Answer 33

• Tremlett (2005) research regarding the segregation experienced by Roma children in the Hungarian education system
• Tremlett exploring why Roma children so often fail in school.
• Originate from the northern Indian subcontinent
• Significant Roma populations are found in the southeastern Europe
• Roma children are marginalized within Hungarian state education
• 40% of children in special schools in Hungary are Roma.
• Gap between educational attainments of Roma and Non-Roma students exists
• Unequal distribution of funds: disparities in funding of facilities, teacher training
• From an interview Tremlett (2005) carried out with a teacher who is content to not teach Roma children:
• ‘I teach only the best children,’ she states. ‘I don’t really like [the Roma children]… they are very different’ (Tremlett, 2005: 153).
• Tremlett noted that Roma children in this study knew that they were treated differently, and many children felt the segregation

Question 34

Define residential school & their purpose?

Answer 34

• Residential school created to assimilate Indigenous children into white society (Albanese, 2009).
• Children often forcibly – removed from their homes on reserves and placed in institutions run by churches and religious orders.
• Prohibited from speaking their own languages, families were separated
• Many children experiences physical, emotional, and sexual abuse
• The consequences have been devastating

Question 35

How are Indigenous Children and Education affected?

Answer 35

• Level and quality of education of Indigenous children in Canada is still far from equal compared to non-Indigenous children
• Less than one-third of Indigenous children have a high school education (Centre for Social Justice, 2007).
• Canadian education curriculum still very Euro-centric
• Although the situation is slowly improving, Indigenous content still not sufficient in schools off reserves.

Question 36

What are the findings of gender inequality in the classroom?

Answer 36

• Boys have more classroom talk with teachers and speak out more compared to girls.
• Girls encouraged to resist traditional roles
• Boys are rarely ever encouraged to do the same
• Hegemonic masculinity: Legitimizing male dominant position in society – dominant cultural forms of masculinity
• Previous research finds elementary schools still reinforce hegemonic masculinity
• Chen and Rao, 2011 found that teachers treated boys and girls differently.
• Appeared to be a ‘boys first’ rule. Girls expected to take second place in terms of gaining attention from teachers

Question 37

How do children view friendships at school?

Answer 37

• School is not simply a place of education – but a social place
• Children report that they enjoy being at school because of the friendships and socializing (Bendelow and Mayall, 2002: 297).
• According to Amit-Talai (1995) young people have limited time to socialize outside of school. Commitment to school, part-time work and extra-curricular activities leaves limited time for socializing
• School a place to socialize and have interactions with friends
• As Amit-Talai (1995: 151) states, ‘[l]unch time presented an ongoing contest between the determination of students to cluster and the equal determination of staff to disperse them.’
• Students find spaces for friendship encounters – e.g., girls used the washroom
• Students demonstrate agency – finding school space and time to socialize

Question 38

Define girl friendships in school?

Answer 38

• Girls’ friendships characterized as dyadic (that is, between two people),
• Friendship groups (Browne & George, 1999): Consist of a leader, the ‘inner circle’ and a wider periphery of girls.
• Leader of the group was often chosen, the person most of the other girls would like as a best friend.
• Leader generated feelings of insecurity among other group members as a way to maintain control of the group.
• All girls (not the leader) demonstrated some form of anxiety over the possibility of exclusion
• Anxiety within the group sometimes negatively impacts school-work – as the girls spend time worrying about their friendships
• Friendship group could supportive and/or be destructive
• Study shows power in children’s relationships from children NOT adults
• For example, 72 % of the sample of schoolchildren identified other children, NOT adults, as having the most power in school (Devine, 2003)

Question 39

Define friendship traints?

Answer 39

• Main characteristic children looked for in friends was trustworthiness,
• When a friend betrayed trust, girls, tended to hide their feelings and to tell a supportive person (e.g., mother). More likely to confront the individual when compared to boys
• Girls more emotionally affected by betrayal than were boys (Singer and Doornenbal, 2006).

Question 40

What do children think about school?

Answer 40

• Sherman (1997) who talked to five-year-old Scottish children about ‘why we go to school.’
• Necessary for their futures
• No choice about going to school,
• However, some children do enjoy and value school
• What children like about school (Alderson, 2000), Most frequent were sports, some lessons, and ‘seeing my friends.’
• Recall friendship is important to children in the school context
• Swedish children were asked to describe their dream school. Common theme: a school would be a place of ‘friendship, freedom and fun.’ Kostenius (2011: 519),
• Dream school is a place where they are able to be involved and influence school decisions
• Children did not often mention learning
• Dream schools: children would be valued as human beings

Question 41

Define child work & child labour

Answer 41

• Child Work: used to describe children’s work in the developed countries
• Child Labour: used to describe children’s work in the developing world
• Working considered problematic in the developing countries and hides the fact the children all around the world work

Question 42

What are the two significant international documents that govern child work & labour?

Answer 42

1. International Labour Organization (ILO) and
2. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
   From the age of 12, “light work” can be beneficial
   * Light work: work that does not interfere with education or the moral, social, and physical development of the child (Minimum Age, 1976 [Convention #138];
   * Light work: e.g., yard work or baby sitting
   * Can provide children with skills and experience – to be productive members of society

Question 43

What did Bolivia do with child workers?

Answer 43

• New legislation in Bolivia has made it legal in that country for children between 10 and 14 to work – self employed
• Also allows children aged 12 to 14 to work for others as long as they are enrolled in school, and have parental permission.
• This legislation is clearly in contravention of the ILO convention #138 and as such the ILO is concerned that this goes against the aim of eliminating child labour

Question 44

Working children [info card]

Answer 44

• Statistics related to Child Work;
• Wells (2009) finds:
• 1 out of 4 African children aged 5 to 14 work,
• 1 out of 5 Asian/Pacific children aged 5 to 14 work
• 1 out of 20 Latin America and the Caribbean work
• Little research regarding children’s perspectives on work

Question 45

What are parents’ opinions of children working?

Answer 45

• Parents encourage that their children work
• Keen for their children to develop positive skills, time management, money management, self reliance (Hansen et al. 2001; Howieson et al., 2006)

Question 46

What was the Paidmeta programme?

Answer 46

• A state-initiated Paidimeta programme in Tijuana, Mexico,
• To regulate children’s work as supermarket packers – aimed at children aged 8 to 14,
• Aimed at teaching good work ethic
• Supermarket packers were not paid - were ‘volunteers,’ Could accept tips
• Legally children aged 14 and over in Mexico have to be paid for their work
• Programme appears unhelpful, ineffective, and exploitative, the study found “children’s sense of dignity and responsibility from their work”.
• Appreciated opportunity to earn tip money and the ability to help their families (Aitken et al., 2006: 378).
• Note: conventions state no children under 12 should work,
• The Paidimeta programme – a government programme –aimed at children aged eight and older.
• This programme shows ambiguity around children and work.

Question 47

What are the two types of Child agricultural work in North America?

Answer 47

1. Farm work at home (no pay- allowed and no interference with school)
2. Paid farm work – seen as child labour and banned

Question 48

What are some gender divisions in children’s work?

Answer 48

• Girls’ work was carried out inside the home
• Boys worked on the farms.
• Work dependent on birth order – eldest would take on many of the responsibilities

Question 49

How did child domestic work change?

Answer 49

• Domestic work regulations were added in 2013 to the ILO Convention (Convention #189 and binding international law).
• Allowed child domestic workers worldwide to be included in the conventions and be protected under the Convention (an estimated 10.5 million worldwide would now be included)
• Child domestic work: Employment in a third-party household (not the home of the child’s family) - child provides services for that household.
• Children partaking in similar (household) activities in their own homes does not fall under the category of Child domestic work Recall Klocker’s (2007) concepts of thin and thick agency - research with domestic workers in Tanzania
• Jensen (2014) studied child domestic workers in Bangladesh
• Approx. 148,000 child domestic workers (between the ages of 8-11) in Dhaka, Bangladesh
• Jensen’s Findings: children felt materially better off as child domestic workers compared to staying with their families
• Most felt were in better conditions (better housing and food) compared to their family homes. Note: Most slept on the floor
• Like Klocker, Jensen found that the children’s agency was very thin, but children demonstrates agency.
• Are child workers forced to work by their parents?
• Bessel (2011) research with child workers in Indonesia suggest (children working in factories, working on the streets and who scavenged) main reason for working was poverty
• Some were expected to work
• Bessel (2011) found children were making a choice and some enjoyed the benefits of working
• 12-16-year-old girls (left village for work) glad to contribute financially to their families and had funds to spend for themselves
• Family status improved for these girls and wider selection of men as potential future husbands
• Studies suggest children exercise agency in relations to work choices

Question 50

What are children’s views on work?

Answer 50

1) Combat boredom and interact with others
2) Sense of independence from parents
3) Allowed them to purchase things they wanted (e.g., entertainment, games, sports).
4) Appreciated that the money they earned relieved some of the financial burden their parents carried
* Choice to work reflected both a need to work and a desire to work

Question 51

Why do children work?

Answer 51

• According to Leonard (2004) children took paid work to gain adult status and independence from parents.
• Strategies to manage parental objections (e.g., some did not tell their parents what kind of work they were doing if it was dangerous). Others convinced parents their academics would not be impacted

Question 52

Banning child work?

Answer 52

• Many children engaged in the worst forms of child labour
• Many Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) mandate to eradicate child labour
• Good intentions, but geography and local culture ignored, and meaning of child work ignored

Question 53

What was the impact of child labour Deterrence Act?

Answer 53

• Bill introduced by the American senator, Tom Harkin.
• If implemented, imposed a US boycott on the importation of any goods produced by companies using child labour.
• Never implemented – but devastating effects
• In Bangladesh, garment industry feared boycott and children were dismissed
• Many of those children had to take more poorly paid jobs instead.
• Intention to eliminate child labour for children to introduce compulsory schooling – not the case

Question 54

What was the impact of child labour Deterrence Act?

Answer 54

• Bill introduced by the American senator, Tom Harkin.
• If implemented, imposed a US boycott on the importation of any goods produced by companies using child labour.
• Never implemented – but devastating effects
• In Bangladesh, garment industry feared boycott and children were dismissed
• Many of those children had to take more poorly paid jobs instead.
• Intention to eliminate child labour for children to introduce compulsory schooling – not the case

Question 55

What is leisure time for children?

Answer 55

• Focusing on play reinforces the difference between adulthood and childhood
• Positioning adults to control aspects of play
• Play is not a trivial activity. Plethora of research examining the importance of play
• Concerns over what children are doing during their leisure time* Academic work on children and play focuses on the role of play in the successful development of children (cognitive, social and emotional development)
• Play serves an important purpose developmentally and/or socially.

Question 56

What are the concerns about children’s play disappearing?

Answer 56

• Concerned that traditional play has disappeared
• Concern - songs, games, and rhymes of childhood are no longer a part of children’s play
• “They don’t play like they used to.’ statement goes as far back as the 1900s
• In the US the growing mass media was a concern – going to the cinema (attractions of commercial leisure – no parental control

Question 57

What were Marsh and Bishop (2014) Findings on children’s play?

Answer 57

• Examined the continuity and change in children’s play
• Continuity in types of play – especially in relation to physical play
• Found mass media was influencing children’s play (children drawing on TV shows to structure their play). Authors argue that this form of play has always been present (Marsh and Bishop, 2014: 75)

Question 58

How do Parent’s Monitor and Control Children’s Play ?

Answer 58

• Particularly in North America, children’s play is adult-managed
• Parents enrol children in extracurricular schoolwork or organized sports - with focus firmly how the activity will assist the child in the future (i.e., future employment)
• Adults are heavily involved in children’s play societies – suggesting the prevalent belief that play is linked to positive future outcomes (Montgomery, 2009).

Question 59

Who some cultures enage on free adult managements in children’s play?

Answer 59

• Among the Beng in West Africa, children’s play spaces = the entire village. Children independent from their parents all day - returning home at meal times.
• Beng parents assume – other adults or older children are looking out for the children (Gottleib, 2004).

Question 60

How is the performance of identity linked to play?

Answer 60

• In her study of British schoolchildren, James (1993) study (British schoolchildren) - children’s play was about the performance of identity.
• Status in children’s peer groups gained by demonstrating expertise in the game – (e.g., knowing the rules)
• Play demonstrated “child’s active engagement with the wider and more complex games of social identity” – games of status and gender’* Children’s play is shaped by the adult world (James, Jenks & Prout, 1998)
• Children’s play is shaped by the society (child’s environment) the cultural norms. Recall adults also control play times and play spaces
• Considered children’s scripts and roles when they play
• Children demonstrate agency in and through play while adhering to the rules and regulations outlined by adults

Question 61

How has places of play & the use of outdoor space changed?

Answer 61

• Loebach (2013) examined children’s use of outdoor space in a medium-sized city in Ontario.
• The amount of time children spent outdoors depended on neighbourhood
• In newer subdivisions, children did not play outside (even when allowed) b/c nothing for them do outside (residential islands – no children’s space )
• In older working-class neighbourhood of the city, children had greater sense of belonging and proud of their play spaces.
• If the aim is to have children play outside more, then children need designated space and a sense of belonging
• Benwell (2013) research in South Africa finds when public outdoor facilities are poorly maintained they are not used by children (not attractive)
• Instead children played on their property (e.g., own gardens, jungle gyms)
• Although better facilities at home - children are lonely
• Better facilities in gated communities, parents felt safe outdoors. Equipment attractive to the children and played with other children

Question 62

How is the use of outdoor space different in gender?

Answer 62

• Girls more likely than boys to be accompanied by adults.
• Boys were more likely to use bigger spaces (football fields, etc.) in the park for their play, while girls used the smaller spaces (Castonguay and Jutras, 2010).

Question 63

What are some aspects that Constrain Children’s Play?

Answer 63

• Gender
• Ethnicity
• Age
• Parental fears about safety
• Public provision of spaces
• Children should be included in the planning and design of their neighbourhood spaces

Question 64

What is the fear of children & technology?

Answer 64

• Many concerns regarding children’s engagement with electronic media
  Fear children spend too much time with electronic media
  Children are vulnerable to the effects of electronic media

Discussions of Children and Media: Contradictions
1. Media is a good thing, Has the potential to empower children
2. Childhood itself is threatened when children use media

• Some authors believe that “childhood can no longer exist because children are so engaged with media that they are no longer acting as children.”

Question 65

What dose Neil Postman & belive?

Answer 65

• The lines between childhood and adulthood disappearing because accessibility of TV and other leisure technologies – giving children easy access to adult content
• “New technologies gives everyone, simultaneously, with the same information….[E]lectronic media finds it impossible to withhold any secrets. Without secrets, of course, there can be no such thing as childhood.”

Question 66

Neil Postman proposed that the lines between childhood and adulthood are disappearing. Briefly
outline two arguments (or reasons) Postman offered to explain why childhood is disappearing (4 marks)?

Answer 66

-The lines between childhood and adulthood are disappearing because of the access to technology that children have, with that access there are no mysteries and a lack of instances.
Nothing for adults to reveal to children which means a lack of control creating a place were childhood and adult hood can’t be separated

Question 67

What is the Period of Goldern age in children’s play ?

Answer 67

• Cassell and Cramer (2008) a period of a ”golden age” of childhood never existed
• History of moral panic over technological changes tainting childhood
• e.g. When telephone introduced into domestic space – concern over the safety of girls.
• Allow predatory males access to their daughters.

Question 68

What is Dual Representation of Children engaging in media?

Answer 68

• Children’s media abilities and use is celebrated
  VS.
• Media taints the essential nature of childhood (the romantic view)
• “and what might our children become? They might become a generation who couldn’t read a book, or play games out of doors, or amuse themselves with carpentry or trains or butterflies, or the hundreds of hobbies [with] which children can potter so happily. (in Oswell, 1999)”
  Children and the Internet
• Conflicting views of children and the Internet:
  -Childhood a time of competency OR a time of vulnerability
• Internet gives children power and autonomy but also a fear that children are at risk (e.g., sexual predators)
• Children are more at risk as children’s competency exceeds that of adults
• Put them at risk online because they are alone in virtual world
• Need to increase parental surveillance and control
  -trying to parent something the don’t know about – the control balance is off

Question 69

What is the Celebratory View of Children’s Internet Use?

Answer 69

• Children’s Internet use - empowerment for children
• “Community of interest” (Cockburn, 2005) – Opportunities for collective political action through discussion groups.
• Research finds children use smart phones to form friendships and to reinforce the emotional ties with their friendships (Bond, 2010)
• McNamee (1998) suggest that for boys– computer games are also used to form friendship reinforce the emotional ties with their friends

Question 70

How can internet negativity effect children?

Answer 70

• Concerns over causing social isolation
• Concerns over the negative effects of violent video games
• Viewed as the factor contributing to obesity in children
• Children using technology for education is a “good” thing
• Using it for entertainment is problematic

Question 71

• Why this difference when the object of discussion (the computer) is the same?

Answer 71

• When used for entertainment – children no adult contro

Question 72

What was the new Institutionalized Child Health Care in the West?

Answer 72

• Increased concerns about the health of poor children – during the industrialization 19 century
• First children’s hospital – Philadelphia 1855
• More than 30 children’s hospitals opened after 5 years
• Purpose of children’s hospitals: societal reform (model of a happy home) and improved health
• “The future health of the family and the state was seen to be dependent on the care of children p.152”
• Open-air schools, combined education and health (first developed in Germany)
• Poor children at risk for tuberculosis (TB) and Outdoor school provided: food, exercise and cleaner air, and education
• As we discussed in Chapter 2 – changes the medical profession into schools. Recall professions and specialists – not mothers considered experts in child rearing
• COVID- some parents and educators push for outdoor learning experiences
• Great Ormond Street, Children’s hospital in the United Kingdom admitted children between the ages of two and ten
• Children under two were treated with their mothers
• 10 and older were seen as ‘too adult’, possible negative influence on younger children
• Age range increased. According to James and Curtis (2012) changing the age limit reflects social construction of childhood

Question 73

Children and being sick at school

Answer 73

• Children’s sick claims often dismissed by adults in school
• Assumption about child’s family (e.g., over-indulgent mother was often invoked)
• If child not visibly sick then ‘wait and see.’ If Teacher felt child is sick then secretary would conduct a further assessment of the child’s illness before calling a parent

Question 74

What is the Obesity Epidemic’ is often linked to?

Answer 74

1. children’s media consumption (particularly screen-based advertising media) and
2. Consumption of junk food

Children’s engagement media drives much of the concern, about childhood obesity and overweight children.

• Inconsistent findings regarding media usage and childhood obesity
• One study found a link between being overweight and video game use (but no association found between TV watching and being overweight)
• Vandewater, Shim and Caplovitz, 2004 found overweight children (under 8) spent only a ‘moderate’ amount of time playing video games. Also report children with low weight spent either a little or a lot of time playing

Question 75

What ist the consensus on the ‘causes’ of obesity.

Answer 75

• There is no consensus on the ‘causes’ of obesity.
  The reasons vary:
  1. Too much screen time;
  2. Consumption of ‘junk’ and advertising;
  3. Unhealthy meals served in school cafeterias;
  4. Lack of physical education classes in schools.

Question 76

What is BMI?

Answer 76

• Body mass index is a calculation (uses height and weight) to estimate an individual’s body fat

Question 77

What are the four categories’ of weights?

Answer 77

• Underweight: less than the 5th percentile
• Healthy weight: 5th percentile up to the 85th percentile
• Overweight: 85th to less than the 95th percentile
• Obese: equal to or greater than the 95th percentile

Question 78

What are advertising bans?

Answer 78

• Attack on the Food for marketing junk food to children
• Consider this quote from Horgan et al. (2012: 456): ‘if unhealthy foods are the wares of a toxic food environment, marketing is the peddler.’
• Solution: Ban marketing unhealthy foods to children?

Question 79

What are some examples of advertising bans?

Answer 79

• United Kingdom: direct TV advertising of foods high in fat and sugar to children under 16 banned since 2006.
• In Canada, In 2006 regulating food adverting to children.
• Marketing ‘healthy’ products (e.g. apples in children’s meals in fast food restaurants).
• Bill S-228 A federal Act to Prohibit food and Beverage Marketing Introduced in 2016)
• Bill did not become law: June, 2019
• In BC, Canada, sold junk foods following a ban on junk food in schools
• Made $200.00 and donated the funds (local children’s hospital), and were hailed as heroes.
• Demonstrating resistance (to adult control of food consumption)
• Adult Influence on children’s eating habits
• Are children to blame for their food consumption?
• Brembeck and Johansson (2010: 807) state, ‘children’s eating takes place in arenas and on terms that are defined by adults.’
• Adults purchase and prepare food, and determine when and where food can be eaten.
• Children can find time and space to eat what they want – yet much the child’s day is supervised by adults

Question 80

How are some ways children experience punishment & how do they experience it differently?

Answer 80

• One reason why some children choose to obey or comply with parental demands to avoid punishment.
• Children were often grounded (Christensen et al., 2001). Confined to the home, or child’s bedroom, for a specified period of time,
• Punishment, which often was gendered:
  o Boys: often punished by parental restriction of their indoor activities (no video games)
  o Girls: making them stay home – not allowed to go with friends

Question 81

What is UNCRC Article 19?

Answer 81

• States Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child.
• Such protective measures should, as appropriate, include effective procedures for the establishment of social programmes to provide necessary support for the child and for those who have the care of the child, as well as for other forms of prevention and for identification, reporting, referral, investigation, treatment and follow-up of instances of child maltreatment described heretofore, and, as appropriate, for judicial involvement.

Question 82

Is in Canada & if it is what are the laws?

Answer 82

• In Canada, corporal punishment is allowed in the home for children over the age of 2 and under the age of 12.
• Section 43 or the Criminal Code: Parents cannot strike children with the intent to harm them
• Canadian laws recognize some situations where a parent or legal guardian may use reasonable force on a child
• Limited research examining child’s views on corporal punishment
• Charity Save the Children found (study in Scotland) found: 93% children thought there were other ways parents could punish

Question 83

Dr. Pendleton-Jimenez discussed the theme of “Loving relationships with the land”. Dr. PendletonJimenez reported that research finds that “the best way to teach children to care about the
environment is to give them the chance to develop fun and loving relationships with the land.” Briefly
outline how encouraging outdoor play may teach children to care about the environment

Answer 83

-they can spend time exploring new environments-
and play freely
-they can learn from outdoor play expland their curiosity
-learn to respect others spaces that don’t belong to them

Question 84

Question

Neil Postman proposed that the lines between childhood and adulthood are disappearing. Briefly outline two arguments (or reasons) Postman offered to explain why childhood is disappearing (4 marks).

Answer 84

Answer

According to Postman, the lines between childhood and adulthood are disappearing because accessibility of TV and other leisure technologies are giving children easy access to adult content. The easy access to information makes it impossible for adults to withhold any secrets from children as without secrets “childhood” cannot exist. As there is nothing left for adults to reveal to children at age-appropriate levels, childhood and adulthood is not separated.