Childhood Flashcards
Phsycial Development
during preschool years, boys and girls slim down; truck of the body lengthens
* By end of the preschool yr, most kids have lost the top-heavy look
* Body fat shows a slow, steady decline during the preschool years
* Middle and late childhood involves slow, consistent growth
* Elementary school yr children grow on avg of 5 to 7.5cm a year until the age of 11 and average child is just under 1.5m talk
* Muscle mass and strength increases with improved muscle tone
* Growth patterns vary from 1 individual to another
Effects of Experience of Brain Development
Different experience, like music lessons can benefit the brain
* Poverty and parenting quality r linked to development of the brain
* During childhood, cortical surface area increases, brain regions become increasingly specialized, and the developing prefrontal cortex improves children’s executive function
Gross Motor Skills
app 3yr children enjoy simple movements (ie. hopping or jumping) for the accomplishment and pride
* Ap 4yr children still enjoy same activities, but they r more adventurous
* Middle and late childhood, children motor sills bc smoother and more coordinated
* Advances in gross motor skills provide children with new learning opportunities t interact with objects, the environment and people
Fine Motor Skills
app 3yr able to in up tiniest object between their turn and forefinger for sometime; still clumsy
* App 4yr fine motor coordination has improved substantially and is much more precise
* Improved fine motor skills in middle/late childhood with increased myelination in CNS
* App 10 - 12yr begin to show manipulative skills similar to the abilities of adults; girls outperform boys
Sleep
getting a good night sleep it’s important for children development
* Among the development problems associated with sleep issues in young children are being overweight or obese and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Nutrition and Exercise
younge children should engage in physical activity every day
* Recommended that young children get and average of 15 or more minutes of physical activity per hour over a 12 hour period or abt 3hr per day total
* Physical activity is inked positively to physical socioemotional and cognitive development (ie creativity and problem solving).
* Lack of exercise play a key role in childhood obesity
Preoperatinal Stage - Piaget
2-yr old
- children represent the world with words, images, and drawings
- from stable concepts and being to reason
- Not fully developed
Egocentrism
Inability to distinguish ones own perspective and someone else’s
Animism
Believe tha inanimate objects have life like qualities capable of action
Conservation
lack awareness that altering an object or substances appearance does not change its basic properties
Egocentrism
Think - pair - share
poets concept of egocentrism - notion that individuals believes everyone else must think, see, hear, feel, and experience the world just as he does.
* Now recall experiences you have had with adults who believe the same thing. It may be someone else or not.
* Many assumptions abt those we work and live with results from ET. If we have opinions, ages, or expectations, we often function as tho others share those s
Concrete Operatioanl - Piaget
7-11y
- children can perform concrete operations
- Reasons logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples
- Can solve conservation problems, reverse operations
Serration
Ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension
Transitive
Ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions
Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP)
Task range too difficult for child to master alone; can be learned with guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children
Upper vs Lower limit ZPD
Upper = level of additional responsibility the child can accept with eh assistance of an able instructor
Lower = level of skills reached by child working independently
Information processing
Individuals differences in attention among age, groups, and typically developing children
Attention = focusing of mental resources on select information
Selective Attention
Ability to ignore task irrelevant info
Selective Attention
Ability to ignore task irrelevant info
Sustained Attention
Focused, extended engagment with object task or event
Executive Attention
involves planning actions, allowing attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
Memory
The retention of information over time
Working Memory
- mental “WORKBENCH” to manipulate and assemble information to make decisions, solve problems, comprehend written and spoken language
- Development of working memory is associated with the development of many brain regions - including medial temporal cortex, prefrontal cortex, and white matter
Long Term memory
- relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory that increases with age during middle and late childhood
- Two types: explicit ( declarative) memory and implicit (no declarative) memory
- Children acting contract their memory
Intelligence
Ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experience; often focus on individual difference and assessment
Blind Test (2 types)
- Concept of mental age (MA); individual level of mental development relative to others
- Intelligence quotient (IQ); a persons mental age (MA) divided by their chronological age (CA) and multiple y 100 (Stanford Binet test)
Weschler Scales
Another set of test widely used to assess students intelligence at various ages. Subscales provide an overall IQ score, but yield several composite indexes, such as the Verbal Comprehension Index, Working Meomory Index, and Processing Speed Index
Types of Intelligence - SternbergsTriarchic Theoy
- Analytical Intelligence = analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast
- Creative Intelligence = create, design, invent, originate, and imagine
- Practical Intelligence = use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice
Gardeners 8 Frames of Mind
1.Verbal - think in words, language to express meaning
- Mathematical - carry out math operations
- Spatial - think three-dimensional (3D)
- Bodily-Kinaesthetic - manipulate objects and be physically adept
- Muscle - sensitivity to pitch, melody rhythm, and tone
- Interpersonal - understand, interact effectively and others
- Intrapersonal - ability to understand oneself
- Naturalist - observe nature patterns, understand natural human world
Cultural Inteligence
- differing conceptions of intelligence occur not only among psychologists but also culture
- What is viewed as intelligent in one culture may not be though of as intelligent in another
Interpreting Differencs in IQ Scores
- interpretation of scores on intelligence test is debated
- Researchers agree that genetics and environment interact to influence intelligence
- Worldwide increases in intelligence test scores has occurred over a short time frame; has been called the FLYNN EFFECT
Creating Cultures Fair tests
culture fair test of intelligence that r intended to be free of cultural bias; 2 types of CFT
1. Items that r familiar to children from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds or items that are at least familiar to the children taking the test
2. No verbal questions
Children w Disiabilites
learning Disabilities:
* r of normal intelligence or above
* Have difficulties in at least 1 academic area, usually servers
* Have difficulty that is not attributable to any other diagnosed problem or disorder
* The global concept of learning disabilities includes problems in listening, concentrating, speaking and thinking
* Difficult to diagnose
* Exact cause has not yet been determined
Phonology
Sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may B combined (p, h, ph)
Morphology
Units of meaning involved in word formation (ie child being using plural and possessive forms of house)
Syntax
Ways words r combined to form acceptable phrase/ sensatences
Semantics
Aspects of language that refers to the meaning of words and sentences (early childhood)
Pragmatic
Appropriate use of language in different contexts
Changes in Syntax and Sematic
1.Children learn the words they hear most often
2. Children learn words for things and events that interest them
3. Children learn words best in responsive and interactive contexts
4. Children learn words best in contexts that r meaningful
5. Children learn words best with clear information about word meaning
6. Children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary r considered
Advances in Pragmatics
- around age of 3, children begin to engage in extended discourse
- As children grow older, they become increasingly able to talk about things that r not here and not now
- Around age of 4-5 children learn to change their speech style to suit the situation
- School adds new skills
Metalinguestic Awarness
Knowledge abt languages
Whole Lang Approach
Reading instructions should parallel children’s natural language learning
Phonics Appraoch
Reading instructions should teach basics rules for translating written symbols into sound
Bilingualism
Development high evils or profiecency in both languages
The Self
Develop many ways that enable them to enhance their self understanding
Initiaves vs. Guilt
children use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, language skills to make things happen; hey r their own person
Industry vs Inferiority
(mid to late childhood) industry expresses dominant theme of this period. Children encourages in their efforts to make, build and work develop greater sens of industry
Self Understanding
cognitive represtation of self, including the physical and psychological qualities that make them unique
As children understand their uniqueness, they begin th pocess of SELF-CATEGORIZATION
2 main differences w self descriptions during early childhood and middle childhood
- begins by describing oneself in psychological terms rather than concrete or physical
- In middle and late childhood, children increasingly describe themselves w psychological characteristics and traits rather than more concrete self descriptions
Self Esteem
- high self esteem is associated with well being
- Low self esteem has been associated with obesity, disordered eating, decreased physical activity, anxiety, depression, succeed, drug use, and delinquency
- The foundations of self esteem and self concept emerge from the quality of parent (child interactions in infancy and ally childhood )
Self Efficacy
Belief one can master a situation or produce favourable result
Self Regulation
Deliberate efforts to mange one behaviour, emotion, thoughts: increased social competence and or achievement
Understanding others
Ages 4-5; children start describing themselves and others in Erma of psychological traits
Perspective Talking - process involved in assuming the perspective of others and understating their thoughts or feelings
1. involves understanding joint commitments
2. Understanding that ppl don’t always give accurate reports of their beliefs (skepticism)
3. Associated with frontal cortex development
Developing Skeptismc
- middle and late childhood, children learn to critically evaluate information and become more skeptical of others claims
- Cultural differences in skepticism - may be based on used of negative feedback for future performance
- During middle childhood, children become increasingly skeptical of some sources of information
Parent Influecne
Mothers socialization strategies - in many cultures, mother socialize there daughters to be more obedient and responsible then their sones
Vs
Fathers socialization strategies- more attention to their sones then daughters; engage in more activities w sones; push intellectual development
Peer Influence
Peers join he process of responding to and modelling masculine and feminine behaviour
* Peers become so impoartatn to gender development that the playground has been described as “gender school”
* There is greater pressure for boys to conform to gender Norma’s then for a girl;as boys face stricter punishment
* Gender influence important aspects of peer relations
Cognitive Influence
interaction between he child and social environment r the main key to gender
Gender Schema Theory
gender typing emerges as children gradually develop gender scheme as of what enter appropriate and gender inappropriate in their culture
Gender Stereotypes
broad categories that reflect gender impressions and beliefs about females and males
Sex Differences in brain
very similar with some differences in anatomy
Research is limited
Congnitve Development and Achievements
gender differences have been found in some cognitive areas
* Girls / Woemen slightly better verbal abilities, memory, and processing speed = higher grades
* Boys / Men better on spatial and some mathematical skills
Socioemotional Development
- boys r more physical and verbally aggressive then girls. Although boys r consistently more aggressive then girls, girls show as much or more indirect aggression
- Females’ express emotion, smile, cry and r happier more
- Vs Males experience more anger
Androgyny
presence of (+) masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person
Gender experts such as Sandra Ben argue that androgynous individuals r more felxiable, competent, and mentally healthy than their masculine or feminine counterparts
4 Developong a sense of Self and Others
- Sex Differences in brain
- Congnitive Developement and Achievement
- Socioemotional Development
- Gender Role
Emotional and Moral Development
- emotional development allows children to make senses of other ppls emotions reactions and to begin to control their own emotions
- Preschholers get better at understanding their own emotions, assessing others, and selecting and using adaptive emotional strategies to meet social strategies
- By middle and t childhood, children gain greater insights and control over their own emotions
- Children’s moral understanding and moral behaviour also advances w age
Understanding and Perceving Emotions
Emotion understanding requires children to be knowledgeable about emotions language, have abilities to interpret bother verbal and nonverbal emotion communication, and be aware of others emotions
Cultural Context of Emotions
- Expression of emotions varies across, families, communities, and sociocultural contexts
- Cultural influences emotions by parents teaching their children how to display and control their emotional expressions and reactions based on the learned social rules and norms of what the group deems “appropriate”
- Cultures such as in Chia, India, and Japan r believed to value Social Harmony and Emotional Control with the goal of promoting interdependence
Regulating Emotions
Ability to control when and how emotions r expressed and it is a critical aspect of development
Emotion Coaching vs. Emotion Dismissing
Parents can play an important role in helping younge children regulate their emotions, Parents influence;
- Emotion - Coaching = view children’s (-) emotions as opportunities for teaching
- Emotion - Dismissing = deny, ignore, or change (-) emotions
Regulation of Emotion ad Peer Relations
Emotional understanding and knowledge play a strong role in role in determining the success of children’s social adaptation
Coping w Stress
childhood stress has been defined roadly to encompass various domaines: social, environmental, and physical stressors:
Social Stress
Involves other ppl like parents
Environmental Sressores
encompassing factors surrounding children, such as living in poverty or witnessing violence in the home
Physical Stressors
directly involve the child, such as physical or mental health problems, poor nutrition, or exposure to toxins
5 Critial Categoreis of coping that r evident across all ages:
- Problem solving
- Positive cognitive restructuring (active coping by focusing on the positive)
- Seeking support
- Avoidance (disengaging or avoiding he stressful event)
- Distraction
Emotional Developem
During middle and late childhood
- improved emotional understanding
- Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experience in a particular situation
- Increased tendency to be aware of events leading to emotional reactions
- Ability to supporess or conceal negative emotional reactions
- Used of self initiated strategies for redirecting feelings
- Capacity for genuine empathy
Moral Development
development of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people
Moral Reasoning - Kohlberg 3 levels
- Preconventional Moral reasoning
- Conventional Moral reasoning
- Post conventional Moral reasoning
Turields Social Domain Theory
As children interact with their social environment they develop their own ideas in an attempt to understand the events, ppl, and interactions around them
1. Moral Domain
2. Social Conventional Domain
3. Personal Domain
Moral Development (3)
- Behaviour
- Feelings
- Prosocial Behaviour
Moral Behaviour
Many researchers have taken a behavioural and social cognitive approach to explore moral behaviours and hos such behaviour is influences by the processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation
* moral behaviours differ among situations
Moral Feelings
Empathy and capacity for empathic reposnces relies on abilities to discern another persons emotional states or perspective talking
Prosocial Behaviour
Study of prosocial moral behaviour and empthatic reposes has placed more emphasis on behavioural aspects of mora development
an important part of peer relationships is children’s abilities to recognize and antipathy sadness for excluded peers
Children’s sharing comes to reflect a more complex sense of what is just and right during middle and late childhood - fairness
Baumids Parenting Styles (4)
- Authoritarian
- Authoritative
- Neglectful
4 Indulgent
Authoritarian
restrictive, punitive style; exhort child to follow directions and respect parents
Authoritative
encourages independence but still places limits and controls on their child’s actions
Neglectful
Parents is univolved in child’s life
Indulgent
parents highly involved with child; but place few demands or controls on them
Child Maltreatment
- physical abuse
- Child neglect
- sexual abuse
- Emotional harm
- Exposure to family violence
Difficult to determine exact prevalence
Siblings
characteristics of siblings relationships include familiarity and emotional intensity, frequent shared play, and teaching and caregiving activities that will influence children’s development over time
Siblings offer rich opportunities to help comfort, share, and companionship
Sibling abuse
Changes in sibling relationship
Working Parents
More egalitarian views of gender: (+) or (-) effects on parenting
Divorce
- one of MOST singnificant adverse events that children experience during childhood
- May exhibit externalized and internalized problems, less social responsible, less competencase intimate relationships, drop out of school, become sexually active in early age, take drugs, bad peers, low self esteem, and to be less securely attached as young adults
- When divorced parents relationship w one another is harmonious to the extent that here is positive family communicataction, it can prevent children experience some of the above (-) effects
- Co-parenting can also have (+) effects on children’s adjustment, but not if inter parental conflicts occur
- Mothers who have custody of child experience greater economic loss than fathers after the divorce
Step Families
- couple must define and stegenthedn their marriage while renominating the biological parent - child relationship and establishing step parents and sibling relationships
- Stepparents MUST regulate family privacy boundaries where decisions about what is shared or kept private ie. family history
- Children often have better relationships w their biological parents
Gay and Lesbian Parents
- same sex marriage face unique Halle yes, as they often have to navigate legal Sussex such as adoption and fertility
- Many G or L r noncustodial parents bc they lose custody of their child to heterosexual spouse after divorce
- Another challenge is discrimination and hostility from society
- Distribution of childcare responsibilities and co-parenting appear to more equitable among G and L then heterosexual couples
Cross Cultural Studies
similarities among parents across all cultural groups - personal experiences, observations of other parents, ad cultural traditions and religion can impact parents cognition
Ethnicity
ethnic minority parents have been found to explicitly terms it ethnic-cultural messageing to strategies to deal with racial ethnic marginalization and to promote positive child development
Socioeconomic Statues
low come families have less access to resources then do high income families
These resources can include nutrition, healthcare, protection from danger, and enriching educational andsocializatio opportunities such as tutoring and lessons in various activities
Parent Role In children’s peer relations
basic decisions by parents - their choices of neighborhoods, religious communities, schools, and their and friends - largely determine the pool from which their children select possible friends
Parents affect their children’s peer relations through their interactions with heirs children, how they manage their children’s lives, and the opportunities they provide to their children
Peer Statues - popular
Children’s frequently nominates as a BFF and r really disliked by peers
Peer Statues - Average
Children receive an average number of both (+) and (-) nominations from their peers
Peer Statue - Neglected
Child’s r infrequently nominated as a BFF but r not disliked by their peers
Peer Statue - Rejected
Children r infrequently nominated as someone’s BFF and r actively disliked by there peers
Peer Statue - Controversial
Children r frenquently nominated both as someone’s BFF and being disliked
Peer Statue - Friends
cognitive, emotional resources from childhood to old age, fostering self esteem and well being
6 Functions of Children’s Frienships
- Companionship
- Stimulation
- Physical support
- Ego support
- Social comparison
- Affection and Intimacy
Play (3)
- Functions of play
- Types of play
- Trends of play
Functions of Play
- play helps child maser anxieties and conflicts
- Pent up tension released through play; learn to cope with problems
- For younger children imaginary situations is real
Types of Play (6)
- Sensorimotor Play
- Practice play
- Pretence and Symbolic Play
- Social Play
- Constructive Play
- Games
Sensorimotor Play
behaviour that allows infancy to derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes
Practice Play
Repetition of new skills
Pretense and Symbolic Play
Child transforms the physical environment into a symbol
Social Play
Live interactions w peers
Constructive Play
Sensorimotor as practice play and symbolic representation
Games
Actives engaged in for pleasure and rules
Trends in Play
- play is universal among humans
- Young mammals of all species ply
- Play is on the decline due to too much time in school; children learning best from adults and fear
Media and Screen Time
- few developments in society in the second half of the 20th century have had a greater impact on children than TV and the advancement of technology; the internet
- Too much screen time is not a good thing
- The extent to which chdren r exposed to violence and aggression on TV raises special concerns
- Parents play a role in children’s social media and screen time
