Chemistry Flashcards
0
Q
Definition of Levorotatory
A
OH on the left
1
Q
What is the definition of a Ketone
A
multiple hydroxyl groups
2
Q
Definition of Dextrorotatory
A
OH on the right
3
Q
Definition of Sorbitol
A
Sugar alcohol from glucose and converted to fructose
4
Q
Where is sorbitol found
A
Berries, cherries, plums, pears
5
Q
Too much sorbitol causes what
A
diarrhea
6
Q
Definition of oxidation
A
increasing positive charges or loss of negative charges
7
Q
Definition of Reduction
A
addition of hydrogen, gain of electrons
8
Q
What is known as the ‘big 4’
A
glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, and oxidative physphorylation
9
Q
When ATP is low, what happens to the big 4
A
speeds up
10
Q
What type of bonds are for CHO
A
glycosidic bonds (alpha, beta, straight chain, branched chain)
11
Q
Alpha bonds are digestible or indigestible?
A
digestible
12
Q
Beta bonds are digestible or indigestible?
A
indigestible
13
Q
How many carbons is glucose composed of
A
6-carbons
14
Q
How many carbons is fructose composed of
A
6-carbons
15
Q
How many carbons is ribose composed of
A
5-carbons
16
Q
What family is glucose
A
aldose (source: dextrose, corn syrup)
17
Q
What family is Fructose
A
Ketose (source: fruit, honey)
18
Q
What family is ribose
A
Aldose (source: nucleic acids)
19
Q
What are the 4 disaccharides & oligosaccharides
A
maltose
lactose
sucrose
trehalose
20
Q
What bond type is Maltose composed of
A
Alpha1-4
21
Q
What bond type is Lactose composed of
A
Beta1-4
* remember Beta is indigestible
22
Q
What bond type is sucrose composed of
A
Alpha-Beta 1-2
23
Q
Whats the source of maltose
A
glucose + glucose (starch breakdown)
24
Whats the source of lactose
glucose + gaLACTOSE (milk)
25
Whats the source of sucrose
glucose + fructose (white sugar)
26
Whats the source of trehalose
mushrooms, yeast
27
What are 4 main polysaccharides
cellulose
amylose (linear)
amylopectin
glycogen*
28
What is the bond type of cellulose
Beta 1-4
29
What is the bond type of amylose
Alpha 1-4
30
What is the bond type of amylopectin
alpha 1-4 > alpha 1-6
31
What is the bond type of glycogen
alpha 1-4 > alpha 1-6
| *same as amylopectin
32
What is the difference between amylopectin and glycogen since they contain the same bond type
amylopectin has less frequent, but longer branches than glycogen. glycogen is highly branched.
33
What is a lignin
only noncarbohydrate type of dietary fiber
34
What is an example of a lignin
woody part of a plant (ie. stem part of broccoli)
35
What are two locations of carbohydrate digestion
```
mouth (maltose)
small intestine (maltose, lactose, sucrose)
```
(*stomach does NO carb digestion)
36
Bond type for lipids
```
ester bond
(aunt ester= your fat aunt)
```
37
Lipids have hydrophobic or hydrophilic heads
hydrophilic
38
Lipids have hydrophobic or hydrophilic tails
hydrophobic tails
39
Saturated fats contain how many carbon-carbon double bonds
zero
40
Saturated fatty acids are _______ at room temperature
solid
41
How many carbon-carbon double bonds do monounsaturated fatty acids contain
one
42
Monounsaturated fatty acids are _________ at room temperature
liquid
43
What are considered "good" fats
monounsaturated fatty acids (ie. olive oil, peanuts, avocados)
44
Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain how many carbon-carbon double bonds
more than one
45
Polyunsaturated fatty acids are ________ at room temperature
liquid
46
What are the main building blocks of fat
essential fatty acids
47
Omega 6 fatty acid is which type of essential fatty acid
linoleic
48
Omega 3 fatty acid is which type of essential fatty acid
linolenic
49
Arachidonic acid becomes essential when which essential fatty acid is missing from the diet
linoleic
50
Arachidonic acid has how many carbons:double bonds
20:4
51
Linolenic has how many carbons:double bonds
18:3
52
Linoleic has how many carbons:double bonds
18:2
53
Eicosapentaenoic acid has how many carbon:double bonds
20:5
54
What name helps to remember essential fatty acids?
ALLE
| 20, 18, 18, 20
55
What is found in all cell membranes (lipid bilayer)
phospholipids
56
Cholesterol is used to make what
cell membranes, bile salts, and steroid hormones
57
Liver converts cholesterol to bile. what does bile do
emulsifies fat
58
bile + fat =
mixed micelle
59
What are the precursor molecules for cholesterol
'MASH'
| Mevalonate, Acetyl CoA, Squalene, HMG CoA
60
What are the 4 lipoproteins
chylomicrons, VLDL (very low density lipoprotein), LDL (low density lipoprotein), HDL (high density lipoprotein)
61
What is the source of chylomicrons
intestinal mucosa
62
What is different between the source of chylomicrons and the other lipoproteins.
only chylomicrons found in intestinal mucosa.
| All others found in liver
63
function of chylomicron
transports dietary lipids to body
64
Important enzyme of chylomicron
lipoprotein lipase
65
Which lipoprotein has the highest percent triglyceride
chylomicron
66
What is the function of VLDL
transports endogenous lipids from liver to body
67
What is the important enzyme of VLDL
Lipoprotein lipase
68
Which lipoprotein is the lowest % protein
VLDL
69
What is the function of LDL
Transports cholesterol from liver to body
70
What lipoprotein has the highest % choesterol
LDL
71
What is the function of HDL
removes excess "free" cholesterol from the blood
72
What is the important enzyme of HDL
Lecithin cholesterol acyl transferase (LCAT)
73
Which lipoprotein is considered "good" cholesterol
HDL
74
Which lipoprotein is considered "bad" cholesterol
LDL
75
What is the location of beta oxidation
mitochondria
76
What is the function of beta oxidation
cuts fatty acid chain, 2 carbons at a time, to make Acetyl CoA for the Krebs cycle
77
What does CARnitine do in beta oxidation
drives or transports fatty acid chain into mitochondria
78
What are the products of beta oxidation
1 Acetyl CoA
1 FADH2
1 NADH
79
The final piece cut from beta oxidation will contain a 3 carbon long chain. What is this last piece called
Propionyl CoA
80
What is the primary substrate for lipogenesis
Acetyl CoA
81
Location for lipogenesis
cytoplasm
82
What is the intermediate for lipogenesis **
Malonyl CoA
83
Lipogenesis is stimulated by what
ATP
| Insulin
84
Lipogenesis is inhibited by what
Epinephrine
| Glucagon
85
Where does digestion for lipids occur
Mouth
| Small intestine
86
What is the enzyme for lipid digestion in the mouth
lingual lipase
87
Krebs cycle location
mitochondria
88
ETC location
inner mitochondria
89
Ketogenic amino acid
leucine
90
Transfers a phosphate
kinase
91
Essential Amino Acids
PVT. Tim Hall
phenylalanine, valine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, histidine (arginine), leucine, lysine
92
Semi essential amino acids
Histidine
| arginine
93
Aromatic "ring" amino acids
phenylalanine, tryptophan, TYROSINE (Tyrosine can help a patient with depression)
94
Basic (positive charge at neutral pH) amino acids
Histidine, Arginine, Lysine
HAL is a 'basic' kind of guy
95
Neutral amino acids
serine, threonine, asparagine, glutamine
| 'STAG'
96
Sulfur-containing amino acids
methinonine
cysteine
(M.C. sulfur)
97
NOT glucogenic amino acids
leucine
| lysine
98
Branch chain amino acids
leucine, isoleucine, valine
| 'LIV'
99
Acidic Amino acids
glutamate
| aspartate
100
Aliphatic "chain" amino acid
Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine
| listed in order of least hydrophilic --> most hydrophilic
101
Location for digestion of amino acids
stomach
small intestines
(NO digestion in the mouth)
102
Which amino acids are lacking in grains like wheat, rice, and corn
lysine, threonine, tryptophan
103
What carries ammonia to the urea cycle
glutamate
104
Which three amino acids donate nitrogen for purines and pyrimidines
Glutamine, Aspartate, Asparagine
'GAA'
105
Which 6 amino acids are muscle able to oxidize
Glutamate, aspartate, leucine, valine, isoleucine, asaragine
'LIV GAA'
106
Glucose-Alanine Cycle is also known as what two things
lactic acid cycle
| cori cycle
107
During exercise, muscle makes what two products
ammonia
| lactate
108
Ammonia + Lactate =
Alanine
109
Alanine travels to the liver and is converted back to what
lactate and ammonia
110
Once ammonia and lactate are turned back in the liver, what do they become
ammonia- urea
| lactate- glucose (GNG)
111
Function of the urea cycle
rid body of ammonia
112
what enzyme is in urea cycle
carbamoyl phosphate synthetase
113
Important intermediates of the urea cycle include what
Fumarate, arginine, citrulline, ornithine, glutamate, aspartate
"FARCO, GA"
114
What are the bonds between proteins and peptides
Peptide bond
115
What is the name of the structure of proteins and peptides: the number and sequence of amino acids; determines the protein structure
Primary
116
What is the name of the structure of proteins and peptides: Alpha helix and beta pleated sheet aka "beta bend"
Secondary
117
What is the name of the structure of proteins and peptides: Maximally folded for function
Tertiary
118
What is the name of the structure of proteins and peptides: More than one chain. Best example is hemoglobin in which has four chains
Quaternary
119
Which type of vitamins and minerals can people OD on
Fat-soluble (AND one exception of water soluble, B6)
120
Thiamine aka
B1
121
Riboflavin aka
B2
122
Niacin aka
B3
123
Pantothenic Acid aka
B5
124
Pyridoxine aka
B6
125
Folic Acid aka
B9
126
Cyanocobalamin aka
B12
127
Deficiency of Thiamine (B1)
Beri Beri:
| Weakness, edema, increase heart, tachycardia, Wernicke's (alcoholics)
128
Which vitamin is associated with alcoholics
B1
129
Magenta tongue and pallor are associated with which vitamin
B2, riboflavin
130
Pellagra (4D disease) dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death are all associated with deficiency in which vitamin
niacin (B3)
131
Which vitamin deficiency is associated with burning feet, malaise, and abdominal pain?
Pantothenic acid (B5)
Think pink panther*
132
Which water soluble vitamin can be toxic and is an exception to the rule
Pyridoxine (B6)
133
Which two water soluble vitamins help RBC mature
B9 and B12
| Folic acid, and Cyanocobalamin
134
Which vitamin needs intrinsic factor (from stomach) to be absorbed
B12, cyanocobalamin
135
What vitamin deficiency causes macrocytic anemia
B12 Cyanocobalamin
136
Which vitamin deficiency causes glossitis/dermatitis. Avidin in raw eggs prevents abs.
Biotin
| Think Rocky Bal-biotin, "yoo, avidin"
137
What vitamin deficiency causes scurvy and bleeding gums
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
138
Which vitamin is found in the white part of fruits
Bioflavonoids
139
Vitamin C aka
Ascorbic acid
140
Vitamin A aka
Retinol
141
Vitamin D aka
Cholecalciferol
| Ergocalciferol
142
Vitamin E aka
Tocopherol
143
Vitamin K aka
Quinone
144
Any name that starts with 'retin-' is the active form of what vitamin
Vitamin A (retinol)
145
Which vitamin deficiency causes night blindness
vitamin A (retinol)
146
Toxicity of this vitamin causes headaches, peeling skin
Vitamin A (retinol)
147
Which vitamin deficiency causes rickets in kids and osteomalacia in adults
Vitamin D (cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol)
148
Which vitamin absorbs calcium from the gut
Vitamin D
149
Which vitamin toxicity causes anorexia, renal failure
Vitamin D
150
Which vitamin deficiency causes possible hemolytic anemia, muscular dystrophy, and sterility
Vitamin E (tocopherol)
151
Which vitamin toxicity interferes with enzymes
vitamin E
152
Antioxidant with selenium is associated with which vitamin
Vitamin E
153
Which vitamin deficiency is associated with clotting disorders
vitamin K
154
Which vitamin makes pro-thrombin in the liver
Vitamin K
155
toxicity of which vitamin causes kernicterus (yellowing), neural
vitamin K
156
What are the 6 important macrominerals
calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and magnesium
157
Calcium and phosphorus are inversely related. Calcitonin moves calcium from _____ to ______
blood to bone
158
Calcium and phosphorus are inversely related. PTH moves calcium from _____ to ______
bone to blood
159
Phosphorus is regulated by which organ
Kidney
160
Toxicity of phosphorus may lead to what
bone loss
161
sodium is regulated by what hormone
aldosterone
162
deficiency of sodium can lead to what
hyponatremia, confusion, coma
163
What is potassium regulated by
aldosterone
164
A deficiency in potassium
caused by diuretics, muscle weakness
165
Toxicity of potassium results in what
cardiac arrest
166
A deficiency of which vitamin is secondary to vomiting
chlorine
167
Deficiency that leads to diabetes, hypertension, increased blood cholesterol, spasms blood vessels are caused by what vitamin
magnesium
168
Which vitamin is a cofactor for kinase
magnesium
169
Toxicity that leads to poisoning-miners, neuro symptoms- like parkinsons dx, most plants is caused by what vitamin
Magnesium
170
What is the function of chromium
glucose transport
171
What micromineral helps bind insulin to cell
chromium
172
a deficiency in chromium leads to what
impaired glucose tolerance
173
What is the function of cobalt
constituent of vitamin B12
174
Deficiency of cobalt leads to what
macrocytic (pernicious) anemia
175
what micromineral is part of cytochrome A oxidase (ETC)
copper
176
What is the name of the disease from a copper deficiency
Menke's syndrome (hereditary- CNS, die infancy)
177
*When you see iodine what word do you think of?
Thyroid
178
Which micromineral is stored as thyroglobulin in thyroid
iodine
179
What micromineral is part of thyroxine
iodine
180
What micromineral deficiency leads to cretinism in kinds, goiter, and myxedema in adults
iodine
181
What micromineral is transported as transferrin and stored as ferritin
iron
182
What is a deficiency of iron
hypochromic microcytic anemia
183
a deficiency in magnesium leads to what
ligmentous healing
184
What vitamin is synergistic with vitamin E
selenium
185
What is a cofactor for decarboxylase
manganese
186
What is a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase
selenium
187
what is a cofactor for carbonic anhydrase
zinc
188
what toxicity causes nail/hair loss
selenium
189
Metal fume fever is associated with what micromineral
zinc
190
what type of bonds hold together nucleotides within one strand
phosphodiester bonds
191
What is the bond type between base pairs between complimentary strands
hydrogen bond
192
T or F:
| Hydrogen bonds are easily broken
True
193
What is the S phase also called
DNA replication
194
What is the location of DNA replication
Nucleus
195
What enzyme unwinds DNA strands
Topoisomerase
196
What enzyme makes new DNA from the parent DNA strand
DNA polymerase
197
What is the process called that splits the 'doubled 92 chromosome DNA' into two identical '46 chromosome daughter DNA' sets
mitosis
198
What is another name for Transcription
RNA synthesis
199
What is the location of transcription
nucleolus
200
What is the name of the enzyme that binds to promoter site, begins to make RNA primer strand from the DNA template
RNA polymerase
201
What is the name of the DNA template that is read 3 bases at a time
code
202
Another name for DNA sequence
Code
203
RNA leaves the nucleus and goes to work where
cytoplasm
204
Holds the information to determine amino acid sequence order
messenger rna (mRNA)
205
Main component of the ribosomal unit which moves along mRNA
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
206
Jumps on and off the rRNA, carrying the amino acids with it
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
207
tRNA anticodon binds to what
mRNA codon
208
what enzyme is responsible for forming a peptide bond with the amino acid on the tRNA 'next door'
peptidyl transferase
209
Amino acid is attached to tRNA by what enzyme
aminoacyl-trna synthase
210
Start codon
AUG
211
Stop codons (3)
UAA, UAG, UGA
212
What is the enzyme for pre-krebs cycle
pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
213
Pre Krebs cycle requires what 5 things
| These five coenzymes love nutrition
Thiamine pyrophosphate (B1), FAD (B2), CoA (B5), Lipoic Acid, NAD (B3)
214
What are the other names for citric acid cycle
tricarboxylic acid cycle and TCA cycle
215
What kind of conditions are needed for Krebs cycle to run
aerobic
216
Products from one turn of the Krebs cycle yeilds what products
2 CO2, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP/ATP
217
What is another name for ETC
cytochrome series, respiratory chain
218
Where is ETC located
inner fold of inner mitochondrial membrane
219
What is the final e- acceptor from ETC
water
220
How many ATP total from all steps
36
*if not available, choose 38
221
Antioxidants decrease free radicals, therefore, decrease cancer cell production. What are the names of the antioxidants
Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, Zinc and chromium
ACESZ
222
Step 1 of glycolysis reaction
phosphorylation
consumes 1atp
(same as step 3)
223
Step 2 of glycolysis reaction
Isomerization
same as step 5 and 8
224
Step 3 of glycolysis reaction
Phosphorylation
consumes 1 ATP
(same as step 1)
225
Step 4 of glycolysis reaction
Cleavage
226
Step 5 of glycolysis reaction
Isomerization
same as step 2 and 8
227
Step 6 of glycolysis reaction
Oxidation
228
Step 7 of glycolysis reaction
Transfer of a phosphate group
synthesize 1 atp
same as step 10
229
Step 8 of glycolysis reaction
Isomerization
same as step 2 and 5
230
Step 9 of glycolysis reaction
dehydration
231
Step 10 of glycolysis reaction
Transfer of phosphate group
synthesizes 1 atp
same as step 7
232
Step 11 of glycolysis reaction
Reduction
233
Enzyme of step 1: phosphorylation of glycolysis
glucokinase (liver)/ hexokinase (muscle)
234
Enzyme of step 2: isomerization of glycolysis
phosphoglucoisomerase
aka
glucosephosphate isomerase
235
Enzyme of step 3: phosphorylation of glycolysis
PFK (allosteric enzyme)
236
Enzyme of step 4: cleavage of glycolysis
aldolase
237
Glycolysis substrate
glucose
238
glycolysis products
2 Pyruvate
2 ATP
2 NADH
239
Glycolysis stimulates
AMP
| Insulin
240
glycolysis inhibits
citrate aka citric acid, ketone bodies, free fatty acids, atp, cAMP, low pH
241
Location of glycolysis
cytosol
242
GNG substrate
non-carbohydrate
243
Product of GNG
glucose
244
GNG stimulates
cortisol, epinephrine, norepi, atp, glucagon
245
GNG inhibits
insulin, amp, adp, high blood glucose
246
Location of GNG
cytoplasm and mitochondria of liver
| * cannot use leucine*
247
Glycogenesis substrate
UDP-glucose (one pentose and one glucose)
248
Glycogenesis product
glycogen
249
Glycogenesis stimulates
INSULIN
250
Glycogenesis inhibits
glucagon, epinephrine
251
Location of glycogenesis
cytoplasm of liver and muscle
252
glycogenolysis "glycogen splitting" substrate
glycogen
253
product of glycogenolysis
glucose
| 1- phosphate
254
glycogenolysis stimulates
cortisol, epineph, norepi, glucagon
255
glycogenolysis inhibits
INSULIN
256
Glycogenolysis
cytoplasm of liver and muscle
257
lipogenesis subtrate
excess glucose
258
product of lipogenesis
fat
259
lipogenesis stimulates
insulin, atp
260
lipogenesis inhibits
epinephrine, glucagon
261
location of lipogenesis
liver
262
lipolysis substrate
fat
263
lipolysis
ketone bodies
264
lipolysis stimulates
epi, norepi, glucagon, GH, caffeine
265
lipolysis inhibits
insulin, FAs
266
location of lipolysis
liver
267
Cholesterol synthesis substrate
regulation HMG-CoA reductase
268
Cholesterol synthesis product
cholesterol
269
Cholesterol synthesis stimulates
NADPH (stimulates all lipids)
270
Cholesterol synthesis inhibits
presence of cholesterol
271
Cholesterol synthesis location
liver
272
Isoelectric point
charge of AA or protein is zero (electrically neutral, zwitterion)
273
wheat and rice are missing what
lysine
274
Legumes are missing
methionine
275
Corn is missing
lysine and tryptophan
276
Enantiomers
mirror image
277
stereoisomers
atoms bonded in the same order, differ in precise orientation
278
Epimers
Sugar differing in configuration at a single asymmetric center
279
Bile salts
Names end in "cholic acid' or 'cholate'
280
Too much uric acid
gout
281
What is the main function of enzymes
speed up reactions
282
Catabolic enzyme
breakdown, generates energy
283
Anabolic enzyme
build up, needs energy
Think arnold= anabolic= build you up
284
Binding site of enzyme
where the reactant (substrate) attaches
285
Cofactor + enzyme =
Holoenzyme
286
Apoenzyme
enzyme without a cofactor
287
steroids
regulate rate of enzyme synthesis (at the DNA level)
288
Zymogen activation
a zymogen is a protein that becomes an active enzyme when parts are removed
289
Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation
participate in control mechanisms for cellular metabolism
290
Allosteric site
an area on the enzyme where a compound may bind and change the rate of activity
291
Substrates do what to reaction
stimulate
292
Products do what to a reaction
inhibit
293
Reaction velocity
proportional to enzyme concentration
294
Michaelis-Menten
Constant (Km)- concentration of substrate at which an enzyme yields 1/2 Vmax
295
Kinase
transfers a phosphate
296
Oxidoreductase
moves hydrogen
297
Epinephrine is formed by what amino acid
tyrosine
298
Epinephrine stimulates pathways which produce what
energy
299
Epinephrine inhibits pathways which store what
energy
300
Amino acid derivative suffix
'ine'
ie. epinephrine
301
peptide suffix
'in'
ie. insulin
302
steroid suffix
'one'
ie. testosterone
303
insulin definition
peptide hormone secreted by the pancreas (tail)
304
Insulin stimulates pathways which store
energy
305
Insulin inhibits hormone sensitive what
lipase
306
Glucagon definition
peptide hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, but has the opposite effect of insulin
307
Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis but does not stimulate what other pathway
glycolysis
308
Glucagon function releases what into the blood
glucose
309
Steroid hormone derivative
cholesterol
310
Steroid hormone increases synthesis of particular what
enzymes/proteins
311
Steroid hormones produced what
adrenal cortex
312
Glucocorticoids are made of what
sugar
313
Mineralocorticoids are made of what
salty
314
Gonadocorticoids are made of what
sex
315
What promotes gluconeogenesis, increase protein breakdown, increase beta oxidation and ketogenesis
glucocorticoids
316
What is important in regulating electrolyte balance, enhance retention of Na and excretion of K.
Mineralocorticoids
317
What are responsible for secondary sexual characteristics
Gonadocorticoids
318
In the male what is the specific gonadocorticoid
androgen
319
In the female what is the specific gonadocorticoid
estrogen and progestin
320
What is the name of the added step of the Krebs cycle
cis-aconitic
